NRLF 


ANALYST'S  LABORATORY  COMPANION 


THE  ANALYST'S 

LABORATORY   COMPANION: 


A  COLLECTION  OF  TABLES  AND  DATA  FOR  THE  USE  OF 
PUBLIC  AND  GENERAL  ANALYSTS,  AGRICULTURAL, 
BREWERS',  AND  WORKS1  CHEMISTS,  AND  STUDENTS; 
TOGETHER  WITH  NUMEROUS  EXAMPLES  OF  CHEMICAL 
CALCULATIONS  AND  CONCISE  DESCRIPTIONS  OF  SEVERAL 
ANALYTICAL  PROCESSES 


BY 

ALFRED    E.    JOHNSON,    B.Sc.    LOND. 

F.I.C.,  A.R.C.SOJ. 


FOURTH  EDITION 
(THOROUGHLY   REVISED,    WITH  ADDITIONS) 


LONDON 
J.     &     A.     CHURCHILL 

7  GREAT  MARLBOROUQH  STREET 
1912 


PREFACE  TO   THE  FOURTH  EDITION. 


IN  this  Edition  I  have  adopted  the  International  Atomic 
Weights  for  1912,  and  have  accordingly  entirely  re-calculated 
the  gravimetric  and  volumetric  factors,  percentage  compositions 
of  commonly  occurring  compounds,  etc.  In  all  cases  the  full 
molecular  weights,  without  any  reduction,  and  seven-figure 
logarithms  were  used,  the  logarithms  being  finally  reduced  to 
five  figures,  which  are  sufficient  for  all  practical  purposes.  The 
above-mentioned  tables  have  been  considerably  amplified ;  and 
the  gravimetric  and  volumetric  factors  have  been  printed  in 
larger  type  than  heretofore,  so  as  to  secure  greater  ease  and 
certainty  in  reference. 

The  section  devoted  to  Weights  and  Measures  has  been 
entirely  re- written  in  accordance  with  the  most  recent  legislation 
on  the  subject.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  legal  Imperial 
Weights  and  Measures  and  the  Imperial  equivalents  of  Metric 
Weights  and  Measures  are  authorized,  from  time  to  time,  by 
various  "Orders  in  Council."  Several  useful  approximations 
have  been  added.  I  have  pleasure  in  recording  my  thanks  to 
Major  P.  A.  MacMahon,  F.K.S.,  the  Deputy  Warden  of  the 
Standards,  for  assistance  kindly  rendered  in  this  section. 

In  the  Water  and  Sewage  section  1  have  given  a  much  fuller 
account  of  the  determination  of  nitrates  by  the  phenol- 
disulphonic  acid  method,  which  I  have  had  in  use  for  the  past 
twenty-eight  years;  also  an  epitome  of  Chamot,  Pratt,  and 
Redfield's  method  of  procedure.  I  made  some  comments  on 
the  latter  in  The  Chemical  News,  1911,  104,  235. 

The  section  dealing  with  specific  rotatory  power  and  cupric 
reducing  power  of  the  carbohydrates  has  again  been  thoroughly 
revised,  and,  I  believe,  brought  up  to  date.  I  am  indebted  to 
Dr.  E.  Frankland  Armstrong  for  kindly  examining  my  revise  of 
this  portion  of  the  book. 

The  Kjeldahl  table  has  been  re-calculated  and  extended. 

362454 


Vi  PREFACE. 

The  tables  of  constants  of  oils,  fats,  and  waxes  have  been 
thoroughly  revised. 

Several  new  tables  have  been  added,  amongst  which  may  be 
mentioned  the  following  : — 

The  melting  points  of  metals,  the  coefficients  of  absorption  of 
gases  in  water,  standards  for  sewage  effluents,  amounts  of  dis- 
solved oxygen  in  distilled  water,  tables  showing  the  deficiencies 
both  in  non-fatty  solids  and  in  fat  in  milks  in  which  these 
are  below  the  minima  allowed,  the  principal  provisions  of  the 
recently  issued  Draft  of  "  The  Public  Health  (Milk  and  Cream) 
Regulations,  1912,"  etc. 

It  should  be  stated  that  in  all  cases  where  a  factor  does  not 
exactly  correspond  to  a  seven-figure  logarithm,  the  logarithm 
should  be  used  where  the  highest  accuracy  is  desired. 


A.  E.  JOHNSON. 


24  PARKDALE,  WOLVERHAMPTON, 
May  1912. 


CONTENTS 


Atomic  Weights  for  1912,          .           .           .           .           .           ,  1 

Logarithmic  Tables,        ...  . 

Densities  of  Gases,          ....                       .           .  7 

Melting  Points  of  Metals,                     .                       .  7 
Gravimetric  Factors,       ....... 

Volumetric  Factors,       .           .                       .           .            .            .  22 

Nitrometer  Analysis,      .  .  .  ,  •  . 

Correction  of  Standard  Solutions  for  Temperature,  .            .  29 

Coefficients  of  Absorption  of  Gases  in  Water,            .                       .  29 

Table  of  Reciprocals,      .           ....                       .           .  30 

Various  Useful  Factors  and  Data,       .           .           .           .  31 

Notes  on  Logarithms,     .......  32 

Computation,      ....                       ...  35 

Approximations,             .           .           .           .           .           ...  36 

Indirect  Analysis,           .......  40 

Percentage  Composition  of  commonly  occurring  Compounds,         .  42 

Notes  on  Indicators,       .......  52 

Precipitating  Powers  of  a  few  Common  Reagents,     .            .  54 

Weights  and  Measures,              .....  55 

Foreign  Weights  and  their  English  Equivalents,      ...  62 

Foreign  Moneys  and  their  English  Equivalents,       ...  62 

Densities  of  commonly  occurring  Substances,            .                       .  63 

Table  of  Freezing  Mixtures,       ......  64 

Percentage  into  cwts.,  qrs.,  and  Ib.  per  ton,  etc.,     ...  64 

Drams  per  Ib.  into  Percentage,  etc.,    .....  65 

vii 


Vlll  CONTESTS. 

PAGE 

Barometric  Tables,         .           .           .           .           .           .           .  66 

Correction  of  Gaseous  Volumes  for  Temperature,      ...  67 
Tension  of  Mercury  Vapour,      ....                       .70 

Volume  and  Density  of  Water  at  Different  Temperatures,             .  71 

Baume's  Hydrometer,     .......  72 

Specific  Gravity  Tables  (Acids,  etc.),  .....  73 

Strength  of  Saturated  Solutions, 77 

Glycerine  Table,              .           •           .           .  78 

Preparation  of  Reagents  for  Water  Analysis,            .         . .           .  79 

Water  Analysis  Tables,  ,           .           .           .                       .  81 

Determination  of  Nitrates  in  Water,  .                       ;  88 

Water  and  Sewage  Examination  Results,                  .  95 

Standards  for  Sewage  Effluents,           .                      .          .           i  96 

Dissolved  Oxygen  in  Distilled  Water,           .  97 

Tables  for  Beer  Analysis,          ......  98 

Original  Gravity  of  Beer,          .  .  .  .  .  .100 

Specific  Rotatory  Power,            .           .           .           .           .           .  101 

Cupric  Reducing  Powers  of  the  Carbohydrates,        .           .           .  109- 

Alcohol  Tables,   .           .                      .           ,           .  112 
Diluted  Spirits,  .           .           .           .           .           .                      .117 

Correction  of  Alcohol  for  Temperature,          .           .  118 

Alcohol  Calculations,     .....  119 

Phosphate  Tables,          .....  120 

Nitrogen,  Ammonia  and  Albuminoids  Table,           .  128 

Kjeldahl  Table,    .....                      .  130 

Factors  for  Calculating  Nitrogenous  Substances,      .           .           .  131 

Oils,  Fats,  and  Waxes,  ....  132 

Constants  of  Oils,  Fats,  and  Waxes,   ....  134 

Reichert-Meissl  Values,             .....  137 

Butter  Analysis,            .                       ...  139 

Sale  of  Butter  Regulations  (1902),       .                                 .           .  141 

Milk  Analyses,    .......  142 

Sale  of  Milk  Regulations,  1901,           .  143. 


CONTENTS.  IX 

PAQK 

Preservatives  in  Milk  and  Cream,        .  .  .  .  14$ 

Quinine,    .......  .          146 

Coffee  and  Chicory, 147 

Lead  in  Tartaric  and  Citric  Acids  and  in  Cream  of  Tartar,  .         147 

Food  Preservatives,        .  .  .  .  .  .  .149- 

Arsenic  in  Food,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .149 

Data  in  Heat  and  Thermo-Chemistry,  ....         150 

Thompson's  Calorimeter,  .....  151 

Electrical  Units,  .  .  ...  15S 

Electro- Chemical  Equivalents,  .  .  .  .  .153 

Thermometric  Tables,    .  .  .  .  .  .  .155 

INDEX, 161 


THE 


ANALYST'S  LABORATORY  COMPANION. 


THE  INTERNATIONAL  ATOMIC  WEIGHTS  FOR 

1912 

(USED   THROUGHOUT   THIS   WORK). 

0  =  16. 

0  =  16. 

Aluminium 

.  Al     27-1 

Molybdenum    . 

Mo   96 

Antimony  . 

.   Sb  120-2 

Neodymium     . 

Ndl44'3 

Argon 

.  A      39-88 

Neon        . 

Ne    20-2 

Arsenic 

.  As     74-96 

Nickel     . 

Ni    58-68 

Barium 

.    Ba  137-37 

Niton  (radium  emanation) 

Nt  222-4 

Bismuth  .    . 

.  Bi  208 

Nitrogen  . 

N      14-01 

Boron 

.    B      11 

Osmium  . 

Os  190  9 

Bromine 

.  Br    7992 

Oxygen    . 

0      16 

Cadmium    . 

.  Cd  112-4 

Palladium 

Pd  1067 

Caesium 

.  Cs   132-81 

Pnosphorus 

P      31-04 

Calcium 

.  Ca     40-07 

Platinum 

Pt  195-2 

Carbon 

.  C       12 

Potassium 

K      39-1 

Cerium 

.  Ce  140-25 

Praseodymium  . 

Pr  140  6 

Chlorine     . 

.  Cl     35-46 

Radium   . 

Ra226'4 

Chromium  . 

.  Cr     52 

Rhodium 

Rh  102-9 

Cobalt 

.  Co     58-97 

Rubidium 

Rb    85-45 

Colunibium 

.  Cb    93-5 

Ruthenium 

Ru  1017 

Copper 

.  Cu    63-57 

Samarium 

Sa  150-4 

Dysprosium 

.  Dy  162-5 

Scandium 

So     44-1 

Erbium 

.  Er  167-7 

Selenium  .... 

Se     79-2 

Europium  . 

.  Eu  152 

Silicon     .... 

Si     28-3 

Fluorine     . 

.  F       19 

Silver       . 

Agl07'88 

Gadolinium 

.  Gd  157-3 

Sodium    . 

Na    23 

Gallium 

.  Ga    69-9 

Strontium 

Sr     87-63 

Germanium 

.  Ge     72-5 

Sulphur  . 

S       3207 

Glucinum  . 

.  Gl       9-1 

Tanialum 

Ta  181-5 

Gold  . 

.  Au  197-2 

Tellurium 

Te  127-5 

Helium 

.  He      3-99 

Terbium  .... 

Tb  159-2 

Hydrogen  . 

.   H        1-008 

Thallium 

Tl   204 

Indium 

.  In    114-8 

Thorium  .... 

Th  232-4 

Iodine 

.   I      126-92 

Thulium  .... 

Tml68'5 

Iridium 

.   Ir    193-1 

Tin  

Sn  119 

Iron   . 

.  Fe     55  84 

Titanium 

Ti     48-1 

Krypton 

.   Kr     82-92 

Tungsten 

W  184 

Lanthanum 

.  La  139 

Uranium  .... 

U    238-5 

Leml  . 

.  Pb  207-1 

Vmailium 

V      51 

Litliium 

.  Li      6-94 

Xenon      .... 

X-  130-2 

Lutecium    . 

.  Lu  174 

Ytterliium(Neoytterbium) 

Ybl72 

Magnesium 

.  Mg    24-32 

Yttrium  . 

Yt    89 

Manganese. 

.  Mu    54-93 

Zinc         . 

Zn  65-37 

Mercury 

.  Hg  200-6 

Zirconium 

Zr     90  -Q 

A 

2  LOSATUTriMIC   TABLES. 


COMMON  LOGARITHMS. 


o 

1 

j 

01284 

8 
03342 

10   0 

00482 

00860 

01703 

02119 

02531 

02938 

03743 

11  04139 

04532 

04922 

05308i  05690 

06070 

06446 

06819 

07188 

07555 

12  07918 

08279 

08636 

08991 

09342 

09691 

10037 

10380  10721 

11059 

13  11394 

11727 

12057 

12385 

12710 

13033 

13354,  13672  13988 

14301 

14  14613 

14922 

15229 

15534  15836 

16137 

164351  16732 

17026 

17319 

15  17609 

17898 

18184 

18469]  18752 

19033 

19312  19590 

19866 

20140 

16  20412 

21)683 

20952 

21219|  21484 

21748 

22011  22272  22531 

227  fe9 

17  23045 

23300 

23553 

23805J  24055 

24304 

24551  24797 

25042 

25285 

18  25527 

25768 

26007 

26245  \  26482 

26717 

26951  27184 

27616 

27046 

19  27875 

28103 

28330 

28556,  28780 

29003 

29226)  29447 

296ti7  29885 

20  30103 

30320 

30535 

30750 

30963 

31175 

31387 

31597 

31806 

32015 

2142  64 

85  106  127 

148  170  191 

21  32222 

32428 

32634 

32838 

33041 

33244 

33445 

33646 

33846 

34044 

2040  61 

81  101  121 

141  162  182 

22  34242 

34439 

34635 

34830 

35025 

35218 

35411 

356U3 

35793 

35984 

1939  58 

77  97116 

135  154  174 

23  36173 

36361 

36549 

36736 

36922 

37107 

37291 

37475 

37658 

37840 

1837  55 

74  92111 

129  148  166 

24  38021 

38202 

38382 

38561 

38739 

38917 

39094 

39270 

39445 

39620 

1835  53 

71  89106 

124  142  160 

25  39794 

39967 

40140 

40312 

40483 

40654 

40824 

40993 

41162 

41830 

1734  51 

68  85102 

119  136  153 

26  41497 

41664 

41830 

41996 

42160 

42325 

42488 

4  2651  i  42813 

42975 

1633  49 

66  82  98 

115  131  148 

27  43136 

43297 

43457 

43616 

43775 

43933 

44091 

44248,  44404 

44560 

1632  47 

63  79  95 

111  126  142 

28  44716 

44871 

45025 

45179 

45332 

45484 

45637 

45788  45939 

46090 

1530  46 

61  76  91 

107  122  137 

29  46240 

463S9 

46538 

46687 

46835 

46982 

47129 

47276 

47422 

47567 

1529  44 

59  74  88 

103  118  132 

COMMON  LOGARITHMS  -(continued). 


~  « 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

123 

456 

789 

30  47712 

47857 

48001 

48144 

48287 

48430 

48572 

48714 

48855 

48996 

14  28  43 

57  71  85 

100  114  128 

31  49136 

49276 

49415 

49554 

49693 

49831 

49969 

50106 

50243 

50379 

14  28  41  j  55  69  83 

97  110  124 

32  50515 

50651 

50786 

50920 

51055 

51188 

51322 

51455 

51587 

51720 

18  27  40 

53  67  80 

94  107  120 

33  !  51851 

51983 

52114 

52244 

52375 

52504 

52634 

52763 

52S92 

53020 

13  26  39  52  65  78 

91  104  117 

34  53148 

53275 

53403 

53529 

53656 

53782 

53908 

54033  54158 

54283 

13  25  38  50  63  76 

88  101  113 

35  54407 

54531 

64654 

54777 

54900 

55023  55145 

55267  55388 

55509 

12  24  37  49  61  73 

86  98110 

36  55630 

55751 

55871 

55991 

56110 

56229  56348 

56467 

56585 

56703 

12  24  36 

48  59  71 

83  95107 

37  56820 

56937 

57054 

57171 

57287 

57403  57519 

57634 

57749 

57864 

122335 

46  58  69 

81  93104 

38  57978  58092 

58206 

58320 

58433 

58546 

58659 

58771 

58883 

58995 

112334 

455668 

79  90102 

39  5910659218 

59329 

59439 

59550 

59660 

59770 

59879 

59988 

60097 

11  22  33 

445566 

77  88  99 

40  6020660314 

60423 

60531 

60638 

60746 

60853 

60959 

61066  61172 

11  21  32 

435464 

75  86  97 

41  61278!  61384 

61490 

61595 

61700 

61805 

61909 

62014 

62118.  62221 

102131 

425263  73  84  94 

42  62325:62428162531 

62634 

62737 

62839  62941  63043 

63144  63246 

10  20  31 

415161  72  82  92 

43  63347 

63448  63548 

63649 

63749 

63849  63949  64048 

64147,  64246 

10  20  30 

40  50  60  70  80  90 

44  64345 

64444 

64542 

64640 

64738 

64836  64933  65031 

65128  65225 

102029  3949591  68  78  88 

45  65321 

6541? 

65514 

65610 

65706 

65801  65896  65992 

66087 

66181 

101929  384857  67  76  86 

46  66276  66370  66464 

66558 

66652 

66745  '  66839  66932 

67025  67117 

91928  374756|  65  75  84 

47  67210,6730267394 

67486 

67578 

67669  67761  67852  67943  '  68034 

91827 

374655  64  73  82 

48  68124  68215  6830E 

68395 

68485 

68574  68664  68753  68842!  68931 

91827  364554  63  72  81 

49  69020 

69108j  69197 

6928fi 

69373 

69461  69548 

69630 

69723  69810 

1 

91826 

35  44  53 

61  70  79 

Note.— The  tabular  logs,  of  numbers  1  to  10  are  the  same  as  those  of  10,  20,  30,  etc. 


LOGARITHMIC   TABLES. 


COMMON  LOGARITHMS— (continued). 


1  « 

1 

2 

3    4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

123 

456 

789 

-j 

50 
51 
52 

69897 
70757 
71600 

69984 
70842 
71684 

70070 

70927 
71767 

70157 
71012 
71850 

70243 
71096 
71933 

70329 
71181 
72016 

70415 
71265 
72099 

70501 
71349 
72181 

70586 
71433 

72263 

70672 
71517 
72346 

91726 
81725 
81725 

34  43  52 
34  42  51 
33  41  50 

606977 
596776 
58  66  74 

53 

72428 

72509 

72591 

72673 

72754 

72835 

72916 

72997 

73078 

73159 

31624 

32  41  49 

57  65  73 

54 

73239 

73320 

73400 

73480 

73560 

73640 

73719 

73799 

73878 

73957 

81624 

32  40  48 

566472 

55 

74036 

74115 

74194 

74273 

74351 

74429 

74507 

74586 

74663 

74741 

81623 

31  39  47 

55  63  70 

56 

74819 

74896 

74974 

75051 

75128 

75205 

75282 

75358 

75435 

75511 

81523 

31  38  46 

54  61  69 

57 
58 

75587 
76343 

75664  75740 
76418!  76492 

75815 
76567 

75891 
76641 

75967 
76716 

76042 
76790 

76118 
76864 

76193 

76938 

76268 
77012 

81523 
71522 

30  38  45 
30  37  45 

53  60  68 
52  59  67 

59 

77085 

771591  77232 

77305 

77379 

77452 

77525 

77597 

77670 

77743 

71522 

29  36  44 

51  58  66 

60 

77815 

77887  77960 

78032 

78104 

78176 

78247 

78319 

78390 

78462 

71422 

293643 

50  57  65 

61 

78533 

78604  78675 

78746 

78817 

78888 

78958 

79029 

79099 

79169 

71421 

283542 

495664 

62 
63 

79239 
79934 

79309  79379 
80003  80072 

79449 

80140 

79518 
80209 

79588 
80277 

79657 
80346 

79727 
80414 

79796 

80482 

79865 
80550 

71421 
71421 

28  35  42 
27  34  41 

49  56  63 

48  55  62 

64 

80618 

80686  80754 

80821 

80889 

80956 

81023 

81090 

81158 

81224 

71320 

27  34  40 

47  54  61 

65 

81291 

81358  8142 

81491 

81558 

81624 

81690 

81757 

81823 

81889 

71320 

27  33  40 

46  53  60 

66 

81954 

82090  8208 

82151 

82217 

82282 

82347 

8241? 

82478 

8254S 

71320 

26  33  39 

465259 

67 

82607 

82672  8273 

82802 

82866 

82930 

82995 

83059 

83123 

83187 

61319 

26  32  39 

45  51  58 

68 

83251 

83315  8337 

83442 

83506 

83569 

83632 

83696 

83759 

83822 

61319 

25  32  38 

44  51  57 

69 

83885 

83948  8401 

84073 

84136 

84198 

84261 

84323 

84386 

84448 

61219 

263137 

44  50  56 

COMMON  LOGARITHMS  -(continued). 


1 

0 

1 

2 

8 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

1  £  3 

456 

789 

70 

84510 

84572 

84634 

84696 

84757 

84819 

848SO 

84942 

85003 

85065 

61218 

253137 

43  49  55 

71 

85126 

85187 

85248 

85309 

85370 

85431  85491185552 

85612 

85673 

61218 

24  30  36 

43  49  55 

72 

85733 

85794 

85854 

85914 

85974 

86034  86094 

86153 

86213 

86273 

61218 

24  30  36 

42  48  54 

73 

86332 

86392 

86451 

86510 

86570 

86629,  86688 

86747 

86806 

86864 

61218 

24  30  35 

41  47  53 

74 

86923 

86982 

87040 

87099 

87157 

87216 

87274 

87332 

87390 

87448 

61217 

23  29  35 

41  47  52 

75 

87506 

87564 

87622 

87679 

87737 

87795 

87852 

87910 

87967 

88024 

61217 

232935 

40  46  52 

76 

88081 

88138 

88195 

88252 

88309 

88366 

88423 

88480 

88536 

88593 

61117 

23  28  34 

40  45  51 

77 

88649 

88705 

88762 

88818 

88874 

88930 

88986 

89042 

89098 

89154 

61117 

22  28  34 

39  45  50 

78 

89209 

89265 

89321 

89376 

89432 

89487 

89542 

89597 

89353 

89708 

61117 

22  28  33 

39  44  50 

79 

89763 

89818 

89873 

89927 

89982 

90037 

90091 

90146 

90200 

90255 

51116 

22  27  33 

38  44  49 

80 

90309 

90363 

90417 

90472 

90526 

90580 

90634 

90687 

90741 

90795 

51116 

22  27  32 

38  43  49 

81 

90849 

90902 

90956 

91009 

91062 

91116,  91169 

91222 

91275 

91328 

51116 

21  27  32 

37  43  48 

82 

91381 

91434 

91487 

91540 

91593 

91645  91698 

91751 

91803 

91855 

51116 

21  26  32 

37  42  47 

83 

9190S 

91960 

92012 

92065 

92117 

92169 

92221 

92273 

92324 

92376 

51016 

21  26  31 

364247 

84 

92428 

92480 

92531 

92583 

92634 

92686 

92737 

92788 

92840 

92891 

51015 

21  26  31 

36  41  46 

85 

92942 

92993 

93044 

93095 

93146 

93197 

93247 

93298 

93349 

93399 

51015 

20  25  30 

364146 

86 

93450 

93500 

93551 

93601 

93651 

93702 

93752 

93802 

93852 

93902 

51015 

20  25  30 

35  40  45 

87 

93952 

94002 

94052 

94101 

94151 

94201 

94250 

94300 

94349 

94399 

51015 

202530 

35  40  45 

88 

94448 

94498 

94547 

94596 

94645 

94694 

94743 

94792 

94841 

94890 

51015 

20  25  29 

34  39  44 

89 

94939 

94988 

95036 

95086 

95134 

95182 

95231 

95279 

95328 

95376 

51015 

192429 

34  39  44 

-_- 

LOGARITHMIC   TABLES. 


COMMON  LOGARITHMS- -(continued). 


1 

1O  Q 

7  8  91 

90 

95424 

. 

1 

95521 

95809 

95856 

Z  A 
51014 

456 

7  o  9 
34  38  43 

95472 

95569 

95617 

95665 

95713 

95761 

19  24  29 

91 

95904 

95952 

95999 

96047 

96095 

96142  96190  96237  96284  J  96332 

5  914 

19  24  28 

33  38  43 

92 

96379  96426  96473'  96520 

96567 

96614  96661  96708  967551  96802 

5  914 

19  23  28 

33  38  42 

93 

96848  96895 

96942 

969SS 

97035 

97081  i  97128  97174  97220|  97267 

5  914 

19  23  28 

33  37  42 

94 

97313  97359  97405 

97451 

97497 

97543  97589  97635  97681 

97727 

5  914 

18  23  28 

32  37  41 

95 

97772  97818  97864 

97909 

97955 

98000  98046 

98091 

98137  98182 

5  914 

18  23  27 

323641 

96 

98227  98272 

98318 

98363 

98408 

98453;  98498 

98543  9S-WS  9.xii:52 

5  914 

18  23  27 

323641 

97 

986771  98722 

98767 

98811 

98856 

98900  989451  989S9  99034 

99078 

4  913 

18  22  27 

31  36  40  i 

98 

99123  99167 

99211 

99255 

99300 

99344  99388  99432  99476  99520 

4  913 

18  22  26 

31  35  40  I 

99 

99564 

99607 

99651 

99695 

99739 

99782  99826 

99870 

99913  99957 

4  913 

17  22  26 

31  35  39 

100 

0 

00043 

00087 

00130 

00173 

00217 

00260 

00303 

00346  00389 

4  913 

17  22  26 

30  35  39  ; 

101 

00432 

00475 

00518 

00561 

00604 

00647 

006S9 

00732 

00775  00817 

4  913 

17  21  26 

30  34  39 

102 

00860  00903 

00945 

00988 

01030 

01072  01115 

01157 

01199  01242 

4  813 

17  21  25 

30  34  38 

103 

01284  01326 

01368 

01410 

01452 

01494 

01536 

01578 

01620 

016G2 

4  813 

17  21  25 

29  34  38 

104 

01703  01745 

01787 

01828 

01870 

01912 

01953 

01995 

02036 

02078 

4  812 

17  21  25 

29  33  37 

105 

02119 

02160 

02202 

02243 

02284 

02325  02366 

02407 

02449 

02490 

4  812  162125 

29  33  37 

106 

02531 

02572 

02612 

02653  02694 

02735  '  02776  '  02816 

02857 

02898 

4  8  12  .  16  20  24 

29  33  37 

107 

02938  02979!  03019 

03060  03100 

03141  !  03181  03222 

03262 

03302 

4  8  12  |16  20  24 

28  32  36 

108 

03342  03383!  03423 

03463  03503 

03543  03583 

03623 

03663 

03703 

4  812 

16  20  24 

28  32  36 

109 

03743  03782  03822 

03862  03902 

03941 

03981 

04021 

04060 

04100 

4  812  162024 

28  32  36 

COMMON  LOGARITHMS  -  (continued). 


0 

1 

2 

! 

_L 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

12  3 

456 

7  S  9 

110 

111 

112 
113 

04139 
04532 
04922 
05308 

04179 
04571 
04961 
05346 

04218 
04610 
04999 
05385 

04258 
04650 
05038 
05423 

04297 
04689 
05077 
05461 

04336  043761  04415 
04727  04766  04805 
05115,05154  05192 
05500  05538  05576 

04454 
04844 
05231 
05614 

04493 
04883 
05269 
05652 

4812 
4812 
4812 
4811 

16  20  24  ]  28  31  35 
16  19  23  27  31  35 
151923  273135 
151923  273134 

114 

05690 

05729  05767 

05843 

05881 

05918  05956 

05994 

06032 

4811 

15  19  23 

27  30  34 

115 

06070 

06108 

06145 

06183 

06221 

06258 

062961  06333 

06371 

06408 

4811 

15  19  23 

26  30  34 

116 

06446 

06483  06521 

06568 

06595 

06633  06670  06707 

06744 

06781 

4711 

15  19  22 

26  30  34 

117 

06819 

06856'  06893  06930 

06967 

07004  07041 

07078 

07115^  07151 

4711 

151822  263033 

118 

07188 

07225  07262  07298 

07335 

07372 

07408  07445 

07482,  07518 

4711 

151822  262933 

119 

07555 

07591  07628  07664 

07700 

07737 

07773  07809 

07846,  07882 

4711 

15  18  22 

25  29  33 

120 

07918 

07954 

07990  08027 

08063 

08099  08135 

08171 

08207 

08243 

4711 

141822 

25  29  32 

121 

08279 

08314 

08350,  08386 

08422 

08458  08493 

08529 

08565  08600 

4711  141821 

25  29  32 

122 

08636 

08672 

08707  08743 

08778 

08814 

08849 

08884 

0^920  08955 

4  7  11  14  18  21 

25  28  32 

123 

08991 

09026  09061 

0!)0!)6 

09132 

09167 

09202 

09237 

09272  09307 

4  7  11  ;  14  18  21 

25  28  32 

124 

09342 

09377  09412  09447 

09482 

09517 

09552 

09587 

09621  09656 

3  7  10  •  14  17  21  24  28  31 

125 

09691 

09726  09760  09795 

09830 

09864 

09899 

09934 

09968  10003 

3710  141721 

24  28  31 

126 

10037 

10072  10106  10140 

10175 

10209 

10243 

10278 

10312  10346 

3710 

141721 

24  27  31 

127 

10380 

10415,  10449|  10483 

10517 

10551 

10585 

10619 

10653 

10687 

3710 

14  17  20  24  27  31 

i  128 

10721 

10755  10789  10823 

10857 

10890 

10924 

10958 

10992  11025 

3710 

14  17  20  24  27  30 

1  1?.9 

11059 

110931  11126 

11160 

11193 

11227 

11261 

11294 

118271  11361 

3710 

12  17  20 

23  27  30 

i 

1 

LOGARITHMIC    TABLES. 


COMMON  LOGARITHMS— (continued). 


0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

1  2  3 

456 

789 

180 

11394 

11428 

11461 

11494 

11528 

11561 

11594 

11628 

11661 

11694 

3  7  10  1  13  17  20 

232730 

131 

11727 

11760 

11793 

11826 

11860 

11893 

11926 

11959 

11992 

12024 

3  7  10  ;  13  17  20 

23  26  30 

132 

12057 

12090 

12123 

12156 

12189 

12222 

12254 

12287 

12320 

12352 

3  7  10  j  13  16  20 

23  26  29 

133 

123S5 

12416 

12450 

12433 

12516 

12548 

12581 

12613 

12646 

12678 

3710 

13  16  20 

23  26  39 

134 

12710 

12743 

12775 

12808 

12840 

12872 

12905 

12937 

12969 

13001 

3610 

13  16  19 

23  26  29 

135 

13033 

13066 

13098 

13130 

13162 

13194 

13226 

13258 

13290 

13322 

3610 

131619 

22  26  29 

136 

13354 

13386 

13418 

13450 

13481 

13513 

13545 

13577 

13609 

13640 

3610 

13  16  19 

22  25  29 

137 

13672 

13704 

13735 

13767 

13799 

13830 

13862 

13893 

13925 

13956 

36  9 

131619 

22  25  28 

138 

13988 

14019 

14051 

14082 

14114 

14145 

14176 

14208 

14239 

14270 

36  9 

13  16  19 

22  25  28 

139 

14301 

14333 

14364 

14395 

14426 

14457 

14489 

14520 

14551 

14582 

36  9 

12  16  19 

222528 

140 

14613 

14644 

14675 

14706 

14737 

14768 

14799 

14829 

14860 

14891 

36  9 

12  15  19 

22  25  28 

141 

14922 

14953 

14983 

15014 

15045 

15076 

15106J  15137 

15168 

15198 

36  9 

12  15  18 

21  25  28 

142 

15229 

15259 

15290  15320 

15351 

15381 

154121  15442 

15473 

15503 

36  9 

12  15  18 

21  24  27 

143 

15534 

15564 

15594 

15625 

15655 

15685 

157151  15746 

15776 

15806 

36  9 

121518 

21  24  27 

144 

15836 

15866 

15897 

15927 

15957 

15987 

16017 

16047 

16077 

16107 

36  9 

121518 

21  24  27 

145 

16137 

16167 

16197 

16227 

16256 

16286 

16316 

16346 

16376 

16406 

36  9 

121518 

21  24  27 

146 

16435 

16465 

16495 

16524 

16554 

16584 

16613  16643 

16673  16702 

36  9 

121518 

21  24  27 

147 

16732 

16761!  16791 

16820 

16850 

16879 

16909 

16938 

16967 

16997 

36  9 

12  15  18 

212426 

148 

17026 

17056  17085 

17114 

17143 

17173 

17202  17231 

17260 

17289 

36  9 

121518 

20  23  26 

149 

1*319 

17348  17377 

17406 

17435 

17464 

17493 

17522 

17551 

17580 

36  9 

12  15  17 

202326 

COMMON  LOGARITHMS— (continued). 


I 

0 

1    2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

123 

456   7  S  8 

150 

17609 

17638  17667 

17696 

17725 

17754 

17782 

17&11 

17840  17869 

369 

181417  202326 

151 

17898 

17926  17955 

17984 

18013 

18041 

18070 

18099 

18127 

18156 

369 

11  14  17 

20  23  26 

152 

1  18184 

18213  18241 

18270 

18298 

18327 

18355 

18384 

18412 

18441 

369 

11  14  17 

20  23  26 

153 

'  18469 

184;  18  18526 

18554 

18583 

18611 

18639 

18667 

18696 

18724 

368 

11  14  17 

20  23  25 

154 

18752 

18780|  18808 

18837 

18865 

18893 

18921 

18949 

18977 

19005 

368 

11  14  17 

202225 

155 

19033 

19061  19089 

19117 

19145 

19173 

19201 

19229 

19257  19285 

368 

11  14  17 

20  22  25 

156 

19312 

19340  19368 

19396 

19424 

19451 

19479 

19507 

19535  19562 

368 

11  14  17 

19  22  25 

157 

19590 

19618  19645  19673 

19700 

19728 

19756 

19783 

19811  19838 

368 

11  14  17 

19  22  25 

158 

19866 

19893  19921  1  19948 

19976 

20003 

20030 

20058 

20085  20112 

358 

11  14  16 

19  22  25 

159 

20140 

20167  20194  20222 

20249 

20276 

20303 

20330 

20358  20385 

358 

11  14  16 

19  22  25 

160 

20412 

20439  20466  20493 

20520 

20548 

20575 

20602 

20629  20656 

358 

11  14  16 

19  22  24 

161 

20683 

20710  20737  20763 

20790 

20817 

20844 

20871 

20898  20925 

358 

11  13  16 

19  22  24 

162 

20952 

20978  21005  21032 

21059 

21085 

21112 

21139 

21165  21192 

358 

11  13  16 

19  21  24 

163 

i  21219 

21245  21272  21299 

21325 

21352 

21378 

21405 

21431 

21458 

358 

11  13  16 

19  21  24 

164 

!  21484 

21511  21537  21564 

21590 

21617 

21643 

21669 

21696 

21722 

358 

11  13  16 

18  21  24 

165 

1  21748 

21775  21801  21827 

21854 

21880 

21906 

21932 

21958 

21985 

358 

10  13  16 

18  21  24 

166 
167 
168 

22011 
22272 
22531 

22037  22063  22089  22115 
22298  22324  22350  j  22376 
22557  22583  22608  22634 

22141 
22401 
22660 

22167 
22427 
22686 

22194 
22453 
22712 

22220 
22479 
22737 

22246 
22505 
22763 

358 
358 
358 

10  13  16 
101316 
10  13  15 

18  21  23 
18  21  23 
18  21  23 

169 

1  22789 

22814  22840J  22866  22891 

22917 

22943 

22968 

22994 

23019 

358 

10  13  15 

18  20  23 

LOGARITHMIC   TABLES. 


COMMON  LOGARITHMS  — (continued). 


0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

6 

6 

7 

8 

9 

123 

466 

789 

170 

23045 

23070 

23096 

23121 

23147 

23172 

23198 

23223 

23249 

23274 

358 

101315 

182023 

171 

23300  23325 

23350 

23376  23401 

23426 

23452 

23477 

23502 

23528 

368 

10  13  15 

182023 

172 

23553  23578 

23603 

23629  23654 

23679 

23704 

23729 

23754 

23779 

358 

10  13  15 

18  20  23 

173 

23805  23830 

23855 

23880  23905 

23930 

23955 

23980 

24005 

24030 

358 

10  13  15 

18  20  23 

174 

24055.  24080 

24105 

24130 

24155 

24180 

24204 

24229 

24254 

24279 

257 

101215 

17  20  22 

175 

24304 

24329 

24353 

24378  24403 

24428 

24452 

24477 

24502 

24527 

257 

10  12  15 

17  20  22 

176 

24551  24576 

24601 

24625 

24650 

24674 

24699 

24724 

24748 

24773 

257 

10  12  15 

17  20  22 

177 

24797  24822  24846 

24871  24895 

24920 

24944 

24969 

24993 

25018 

257 

10  12  15 

17  20  22 

178 

25042;  25066  25091 

25115 

25139 

25164 

25188 

25212 

25237 

25261 

257 

10  12  15 

17  19  22 

179 

25285  25310  25334 

25358 

25382 

25406 

25431 

25455 

25479 

25503 

257 

10  12  15 

17  19  22 

180 

25527  25551 

25575 

25600  25624 

25648 

25672 

25696 

25720 

25744 

257 

10  12  14 

171922 

181 

257681  25792 

25816 

25840'  25864 

25888 

25912 

25935 

25959 

25983 

257 

91214 

17  19  22 

182 

26007  26031 

26055 

26079  26102 

26126 

26150 

26174 

26198 

26221 

257 

91214 

17  19  21 

183 

26245 

26269 

26293 

26316  26340 

26364 

26387 

26411 

26435 

26458 

257 

91214 

17  19  21 

184 

26482 

26505 

26529 

26553,  26576 

26600 

26623 

26647 

2C670 

26694 

257 

91214 

16  19  21 

185 

26717 

26741 

26764 

26788 

26811 

26834 

26858 

26881  26905 

26928 

257 

91214 

16  19  21 

186 

26951  26975  26998 

27021  27045 

27068 

27091 

27114  27138 

27161 

257 

91214 

16  19  21 

187 

27184  272071  27231 

27254  27277 

27300 

27323 

27346  27370 

27393 

257   9  12  14 

16  19  21 

188 

27416  27439,  27462 

27485  27508 

27531 

27554 

27577  27600 

27623 

257   91214 

16  18  21 

189 

27646  27669  27692 

27715 

27738 

27761 

27784 

27807 

27830 

27852 

257  j  91114 

16  18  21 

COMMON  LOGARITHMS— (continued). 


0 

1 

2 

8 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

123 

466 

789 

190 
191 
192 
193 
194 

195 
196 
197 
198 
199 

27875 
28103 
28330 
28556 
28780 

29003 
29226 
29447 
29667 
29885 

27898 
28126 
28353 
28578 
28803 

29026 
29248 
29469 
29688 
29907 

27921 
28149 
28375 
28601 
28825 

29048 
29270 
29491 
29710 
29929 

27944 
28171 
28398 
28623 
28847 

29070 
29292 
29513 
29732 
29951 

27967 
28194 
28421 
28646 
28870 

29092 
20314 
29535 
29754 
29973 

27989 
28217 
28443 
28668 
28892 

29115 
29336 
29557 
29776 
29994 

28012 
28240 
28466 
28691 
28914 

29137 
29358 
29579 
29798 
30016 

28035 
28262 
28488 
28713 
28937 

29159 
29380 
29601 
29820 
30038 

28058 
28285 
28511 
28735 
28959 

29181 
29403 
29623 
29842 
30060 

28081 
28307 
28533 
28758 
28981 

29203 
29425 
29645 
29863 
30081 

257 
257 
257 
247 
247 

247 
247 
247 
247 
247 

91114 
91114 
91114 
91113 
91113 

91113 
91113 
91113 
91113 
91113 

161821 
16  18  20 
16  18  20 
161820 
161820 

16  18  20 
15  18  20 
15  18  20 
15  18  20 
151720 

Base  of  Common  Logarithms  =  10. 

Hyp.  Log.  z  =  -  Com.  Log.  z. 
aL 

Base  of  Hyperbolic  Logarithms  =  e=2'71828. 
Com.  Log.  z  =  M  Hyp.  Log.  z. 

Number. 

Com.  Log. 

Number. 

Com.  Log. 

e=2-71828 
~=  2-30259 
M=  0-434294 

0-434  2945 
0-362  2157 
T-6877843 

7r=3-14159 
-J  =0-785398 

•J  =  0-52359 
V^  1-77245 

0-497  1499 
T'895  0899 

T'718  9986 
0-248  5749 

DENSITIES   OF    GASES. 


DENSITIES  OF  GASES. 
(The  observed  Densities  are  given  in  this  Table.') 


Name  of  Gas. 

Formula. 

Mole, 
cular 
Weight. 

Weight 
of  1  litre 
at  0°  C. 
and  760 
mm.  Bar. 

Logarithms. 

Observer. 

(grams.) 

Acetylene, 

C2H2 

26-016 

1-189 

0-075  1819 

Berthelot 

Ammonia, 

NH3 

17-034 

07708 

1-8869417 

Perman  &  Davies 

Atmospheric  air,    . 

1-2928 

0-1115313 

Rayleigh 

Carbon  monoxide,  . 

CO 

28 

1-2504 

0-097  0490 

|J 

,,      dioxide, 

C02 

44 

1-9769 

0-295  9847 

Chlorine, 

C12 

70-92 

3-2191 

0-507  7345 

Trea'dwell 

Ethylene, 

C2H4 

28-032 

1-2737 

01050671 

Saussure 

Hydrogen, 

V 

2-016 

0-0899 

2-953  7597 

Rayleigh 

Hydrogen  chloride  , 

HC1 

36-468 

1-6392 

0-2146319 

Gray  and  Burt 

,,         sulphide, 

H2S 

34-086 

1-5378 

0-1868999 

Leduc 

Methane, 

CH4 

16-032 

07209 

1-8578750 

Thomson 

Nitrogen, 

N2 

28-02 

1-2507 

0-0971531 

Rayleigh,  Gray 

Nitrous  oxide, 

N2O 

44-02 

1-9777 

0-296  1604 

Rayleigh 

Nitric  oxide,  . 

NO 

30-01 

1-3402 

0-1271696 

Gray 

,  ,     peroxide,     . 

N02 

46-01 

2-0530* 

0-3123889 

Oxygen, 

02 

32 

1*4290 

0-1550322 

Rayleigh 

Sulphur  dioxide,    . 

S02 

64-07 

2-9266 

0-466  3634  Leduc  and  others 

Note.— 1-008  gram  of  hydrogen  occupies  11-2125  litres  at  N.T.P. 
1000  cubic  feet  of  air  at  62°  F.  weigh  76-08  Ib. 


*  Calculated- 


MELTING  POINTS  OF  METALS. 
(The  Values  marked  *  are  by  Prof.    W.  C.  Roberts- Austen.) 


Metal. 

Melting 
Point. 

Metal. 

Melting 
Point. 

Aluminium,     . 

625* 

Manganese,  . 

1900 

Antimony, 

632 

Mercury  (B.  P.  358°  C.) 

-39 

Bismuth, 

270 

Nickel,          . 

1427 

Cadmium, 

320 

Osmium, 

2500 

Cobalt,    . 

1500 

Palladium,    . 

1500* 

Couper,   . 
Gold,       . 

1054* 
1045* 

Platinum,  f  . 
Potassium,    . 

1775* 
62-1 

Iridium,  . 

1950 

Silver,  . 

954* 

Iron  (pig), 

1100-1200 

Sodium, 

97-6 

,,    (wrought). 

1500-1600 

Steel,    . 

1300-1400 

Lead,       . 

326* 

Tin,      . 

232 

Lithium, 

180 

Zinc,     . 

415* 

Magnesium, 

750 

t  Dr  Marker,  F.R.S.,  of  the  National  Physical  Laboratory,  gives  1710°. 


GRAVIMETRIC    FACTORS. 


FACTORS  AND  THEIR  LOGARITHMS  REQUIRED  IN 
GRAVIMETRIC  ANALYSIS. 


Ele- 
ment. 

To  convert 

Factor. 

Logarithm 
(to  be  added). 

ALUMINIUM  (Al  =  27'l) 

Al 

A1203        into                        A12 

0-53033 

1-72455 

„ 

„    A12(NH4)2(S04)4, 

8-87425 

0-948  13 

24H20 

,, 

A12K2(S04)4, 

9-28634 

0-967  84 

24H20 

n 

A12(P04)2  „                      A12<>3 

0-41837 

T-621  56 

M 

„        „    A12(NH4)2(S04)4, 

3-71274 

0-569  69 

24H2O 

5J 

Ammonia-alum  into  Potash-alum 

1-04644 

0-01971 

AMMONIUM  (see  under  NITROGEN) 

ANTIMONY  (Sb=  120-2) 

Sb 

Sb2O4             into                   Sb2 

0-78975 

T-897  49 

II 

Sb2S8                „                    Sb2 

0-71418 

1-85381 

If 

„                  „               Sb204 

0-90431 

1-956  32 

ARSENIC  (As  =  74-96) 

As 

2NH4MgAs04,  H2O  into      As2 

0-39384 

T-595  32 

>i    As./)3 

0-51994 

T71595 

„ 

0-60400 

1-78104 

Mg2As207                    „         As2 

0-48274 

1-683  71 

As.  0 

0-63730 

1-80434 

ii 

1                           I    As205 

0-74034 

1-869  43 

„ 

As203                           „        As2 

0-75748 

T-879  37 

11 

As2S3                            „        As2 

0-60911 

T-784  70 

,, 

„                               ,,    As2Os 

0-80413 

T  905  33 

" 

"  AS2°6 

0-93414 

T'970  41 

GRAVIMETRIC    FACTORS. 


FACTORS  AND  THEIR  LOGARITHMS  REQUIRED  IN 
GRAVIMETRIC  ANALYSIS— continued. 


Ele- 
ment. 

To  convert 

Factor. 

Logarithm 
(to  be  added). 

BARIUM  (Ba=137'37) 

Ba 

BaSO4     into                           Ba 

0-58846 

T-769  72 

n 

BaO 

0-65700 

1-81757 

55 

BaC03 

0-84548 

1-92711 

55 

BaCl2 

0-89226 

1-95U49 

JJ 

BaCl2,  2H20 

1-04662 

0-01979 

55 

55                         5>                                                                     S 

0-13738 

1-137  92 

)) 

S()3 

0-34300 

T'535  29 

5J 

S04 

0-41154 

1-61441 

>J 

55                        55                                                  H2S04 

0-42018 

1-62343 

9) 

CaS04 

0-58319 

T-765  81 

|| 

CaS04,  2H20 

0-73754 

1-86779 

55 

55 

FeS04,  7H20 
PbS04 

1-19100 
1-29871 

0-075  90 
0-11351 

J5 

MgS04 

0-51572 

T-71242 

5) 

,,           „                      K2S04 

0-74653 

1-87305 

55 

Na2804 

0-60859 

T-784  33 

5) 

„        Na2S04,  10H20 

1-38035 

013999 

51 

(NH4)2S04 

0-56612 

1-75291 

55 

2BaS04    „                           FeS2 

0-25698 

1-40990 

55 

4BaS04     „     A12(NH4)2(S04)4, 

0-97129 

1-98735 

24H20 

>5 

BaC03      „                              Ba 

0-69600 

T-84261 

55 

BaO 

0-77707 

1-89046 

» 

C03 

0-30400 

1-482  87 

BISMUTH  (Bi  =  208) 

Bi 

Bi203                into                Bi2 

0-89655 

T-952  58 

11 

Bi2S3                  „                   Bi2 

0-81217 

1-909  65 

10 


GRAVIMETRIC   FACTORS. 


FACTORS  AND  THEIR  LOGARITHMS  REQUIRED  IN 
GRAVIMETRIC  ANALYSIS — continued. 


Ele- 
ment. 

To  convert 

Factor. 

Logarithm 
(to  be  added}. 

B 

M 

» 

BORON  (B=ll) 
B203               into                   B2 
B20S                  „            2H3BO3 
2H3B03            „                 B2O3 

0-31428 
1-77212 
0-56430 

T-497  32 
0-248  49 
1-751  51 

Cd 

)> 
II 

CADMIUM  (Cd  =  112-4) 
CdO                  into                 Cd 
CdS                   „                  Cd 
CdO 

0-87539 
0-77801 
0-88877 

T-942  20 
T-890  99 
1-94879 

Ca 

M 

» 

CALCIUM  (Ca  =  40-07) 
CaO              into                     Ca 
CaC03 
CaS04 

0-71464 
1-78473 
2-42804 

T-854  09 
0-251  57 
0-385  26 

5J 
» 
)> 

I) 

„     CaS04,2H20 
CaCl2 
CaH202 
3CaO              „              Ca8P208 

3-07066 
1-97949 
1-32131 
1-84466 

0-487  23 
0-296  55 
012101 
0-265  92 

j» 
11 

CaCl2                                   CaO 
Pi 

j»                          )>                                 v-/12 

050518 
0-63897 

1-703  45 
T-805  48 

5) 
)> 
II 

>J 

CaC03            „                       Ca 
CaO 
C02 
C03 

0-40042 
0-56031 
0-43969 
0-59958 

T-602  52 
1-74843 
1-643  15 

1-77785 

»J 
|j 

CaS04 
„      CaS04,  2H20 

1-36045 
1-72052 

0-133  68 
0-235  66 

>) 
» 
)) 

CaS04            „                        Ca 
CaO 
CaC08 

0-29433 
0-41186 
0-73505 

T-468  83 
1-61474 
1-86632 

GRAVIMETRIC    FACTORS. 


11 


FACTORS  AND  THEIR  LOGARITHMS  REQUIRED  IN 
GRAVIMETRIC  ANALYSIS — continued. 


Ele- 
ment. 

To  convert 

Factor. 

Logarithm 
(to  be  added). 

Ca 
)> 

)3 

CALCIUM  (Ca=  40'07)  —continued. 
CaS04         into     CaS04,  2H20 
S08 

1-26467 
0-58814 

0-10198 
1-76948 

}> 

)5 
J) 
)) 
)) 

Ca3P208         „                 CaP206 
CaH4P208 

P205 
p 

CaH>208      "               Ca3P2082 

0-63860 
0-75472 
0-45789 
0-20007 
1-32500 

T-805  23 
1-877  79 
1-66077 
T-301  18 
0-12221 

c 

M 

» 
» 

CARBON  (C  =  12) 
C02                 into                    C 
CaC03 
Na2C03 
NaHC03 

0-27273 
2-27432 
2-40910 
1-90927 

T-435  73 
0-356  85 
0-381  85 
0-280  87 

» 
J> 
|) 

PbC08 
2C02                 „               Mn02 
C2H60               „             C2H402 

6-07045 
0-98784 
1-30368 

0-783  22 
T-994  69 
0-11517 

Cl 

n 

?) 

CHLORINE  (Cl  =  35'46) 
Cl                 into                   HC1 
NaCl 
KC1 

1-02843 
1-64862 
2-10265 

0-012  17 
0-21712 
0-32277 

51 
55 
» 

C12                 „                 MgCl2 
CaCl2 

o 

1-34292 
1-56500 
0-22560 

0-12805 
0-19452 
1-35335 

Cr 
» 

CHROMIUM  (Cr  =  52) 
Cr203             into                   Cr2 
,,                   ,,              Jv2Cr2U^ 

0-68421 
1-93553 

T-835  19 
0-286  80 

Co 

COBALT  (Co  =  58  -97) 
CoO                into                 Co 

0-78658 

1-895  74 

GRAVIMETRIC    FACTORS. 


FACTORS  AND  THEIR  LOGARITHMS  REQUIRED  IN 
GRAVIMETRIC  ANALYSIS — continued. 


Ele- 
ment. 

To  convert 

Factor. 

Logarithm 
(to  be  added). 

COPPER  (Cu  =  63-57) 

Cu 

Cu                  into                 CuO 

1-25170 

0-097  50 

» 

CuO                 ,,                     Cu 

0-79892 

1-90250 

» 

2CuO                „                  Cu2O 

0-89946 

T'953  98 

» 

Cu20                „                2CuO 

1-11178 

0-046  02 

» 

CuiSCN            „                    Cu 

0-52256 

1-71814 

FLUORINE  (F=  19) 

F 

CaF2                 into                 F2 

0-48674 

1-687  30 

>j 

2HF 

0-51256 

1-70975 

HYDROGEN  (H  =  1'008) 

H 

HC1                into                   Cl 

0-97236 

T'987  83 

»j 

HNO.                                     N 

0-22232 

T-346  97 

u 

„    '               „             NaN03 

1-34898 

0-13001 

n 

2HN03             „                 N205 

0-85705 

1-93301 

j> 

H2S04              „        (NH4)2S04 

1-34743 

0-12947 

» 

2HC1 

0-74359 

1-87133 

» 

>!                                         >»                                           SOg 

0-81633 

1-91186 

»> 

2C2H402           „     Ca(C2H302)2 

131695 

0-11957 

IRON  (Fe  =  55-84) 

Fe 

Fe                  into                FeO 

1-28653 

0-10942 

>» 

FeC03 

2-07450 

0-31691 

jj 

FeS2 

2-14864 

0-332  16 

» 

„      FeS04,7H20 

4-97890 

0-697  la 

ii 

)5 

Fe2                    „                 Fe208 
„      Fe203  .  H20 

1-42980 
1-59112 

0-15528 
0-201  70 

» 

„    Fe203.3H20 

1-91375 

0-281  89 

GRAVIMETEIC    FACTORS. 


13 


FACTORS  AND  THEIR  LOGARITHMS  REQUIRED  IN 
GRAVIMETRIC  ANALYSIS — continued. 


Ele- 
ment. 

To  convert 

Factor. 

Logarithm 
(to  be  added] 

IRON  (Fe  =  55-S4)—  continued. 

Fe 

Fe2                 into        Fe2(P04)2 

2-70200 

0-431  69 

)> 

„                       „              "  MnO2 

077838 

1-891  19 

5) 

Fe203               „                    Fe2 

069940 

1-844  72 

)J 

Fe2(P04)2 

1-88978 

0-27641 

5) 

3Fe203             „               2Fe804 

0-96660 

1-98525 

» 

FeS                   „                       Fe 

0-63520 

T-802  91 

II 

2FeS                „                 Fe203 

0-90820 

1-95818 

J5 

FeS9                 „                        S2 

0-53459 

T-72802 

J) 

2{Fe(NH4)2(S04)2,6H20}  into  !  0-11083 

1-04468 

Mn02 

LEAD(Pb  =  207'l) 

Pb 

Pb           into                       PbO 

1-077261    0-03232 

» 

PbS           „                            Pb 

0-86591 

1-937  47 

M 

PbO 

0-93281 

1-96979 

>J 

3PbO          ,    2PbCOs,Pb(OH)2 

1-15840 

0-063  86 

)j 

Pb02         „                             Pb 

0-86617 

1-937  60 

1) 

PbS04       „                            Pb 

0-68312 

T-834  49 

>J 

PbO 

0-73589 

1-86681 

)) 

PbS 

0-78890 

1-89702 

?> 

PbCr04     „                             Pb 

0-64098 

T-806  84 

JJ 

PbO 

0-69050 

1-839  16 

>? 

PbS04 

0-93832 

1-97235 

5) 

2PbCrO4  „                          Cr203 

0-23522     T-371  48 

n 

>j               55                                   2       2     7 

0-45528  !    1-65828 

j> 

3PbCr04  „    2PbC03,  Pb(OH)2 

0-79987     1-90302 

14 


GRAVIMETRIC    FACTORS. 


FACTORS  AND  THEIR  LOGARITHMS  REQUIRED  IN 
GRAVIMETRIC  ANALYSIS — continued. 


Ele- 
ment. 

To  convert 

Factor. 

Logarithm 
(to  be  added}. 

MAGNESIUM  (Mg  =  24*32) 

Mg 

MgCl2        into                     MgO 

0-42335 

T-626  70 

M 

»                   »                                      ^2 

0-74464 

1-871  95 

M 

MgO           „                  MgOO, 

2-09127 

0-32041 

|f 

MgCl2 

2-36210 

0-373  30 

„ 

MgS04 

2-98586 

0-475  07 

M 

„        MgS04,  7H20 

6-11364 

0-786  30 

>' 

Mg(N08)a 

3-67907 

0-565  74 

H 

Mg2P2Or     „                        Mg2 

0-21839 

T-339  23 

,, 

2MgO 

*0-36207 

T-558  79 

M 

2MgC03 

0-75718 

1-879  20 

M 

2MgCl2 

0-85524 

1-93209 

„ 

2MgS04 

1-08109 

0-033  86 

M 

„    2(MgS04,  7H20) 

2-21356 

0-345  09 

H 

>  >          »                           "2 

0-27874 

T-445  19 

M 

5)                  >j                                          -t  O^-'K 

0-63793 

1-80477 

2H3P04 

0-88060 

1-94478 

M 

CaH4(P04)2 

1-05146 

0-021  79 

„ 

Ca(P03)2 

0-88968 

T-949  23 

M 

Ca3(P04)2 

1-39318 

0-14401 

n 

MgS04       „                           Mg 

0-20201 

1-305  37 

MgO 

0-33491 

1-52493 

MANGANESE  (Mn  =  54*93) 

Mn 

Mn                 into                MnO 

1-29128 

0-11102 

* 

MnO                 „                     Mn 

0-77442 

1-88898 

» 

Mn02               „                    Mn 

063189 

T-800  64 

*  Or  use  the  Phosphate  Table,  pp.  121-128,  subtracting  from  the 
Mg2P207  found  the  P205  in  it. 


GRAVIMETRIC    FACTORS. 


15 


FACTORS  AND  THEIR  LOGARITHMS  REQUIRED  IN 
GRAVI  METRIC  ANALYSIS — continued. 


Ele- 
ment. 

To  convert 

"Faof-ni-      i    Logarithm 
'(to  beaded). 

MANGANESE  (Mn  =  54-93)  —  contd. 

Mn 

Mn3O4            into                3Mn 

0-72027!    T-85749 

u 

3MnO 

0-93007     1-96851 

" 

MnS                 „                     Mn 

0-63138     T80029 

MnO 

0-81529 

1-91131 

i     „ 

MnS04             „                     Mn 

0-36377 

T-560  83 

1 

»> 

„                   „                  MnO 

0-46974 

1-671  85 

i 

I 

MERCURY  (Hg  =  200-6) 

Hg 

HgS               into                   Hg 

0-86217 

1-93559 

5) 

HgO 

0-93093 

1-96892 

n 

Hg2Cl2            „                   2Hg 

0-84978 

1-929  31 

II 

Hg20 

0-88367 

T946  29 

MOLYBDENUM 

Mo 

Ammonium  phospho-molybdate 

(dried  at  100°  C.)  into         P 

0-0163 

2-212  19 

t) 

»                 )>              25 

0-0373 

2-571  77 

n 

„    into  Ca3(P04)2 

0-08147 

2-911  00 

NICKEL  (Ni  =  58'68) 

Ni 

NiO                   into                 Ni 

0-78575 

1-89529 

NITROGEN  (14-01)  AND 

AMMONIUM  (18  042) 

N" 

N                 into                  NH3 

1-215S5 

0-084  88 

,, 

HN03 

4-49807 

0-65303 

M 

„                      „                   NnJNO3 

6-06780 

0-783  03 

5> 

KN03 

7-21700 

0-858  36 

M 

„                     ,,        Albuminoids 

6-25 

0-795  88 

" 

„                     ,,                Caffeine 

3-46395 

0-539  57 

16 


GRAVIMETRIC   FACTORS. 


FACTORS  AND  THEIR  LOGARITHMS  REQUIRED  IN 
GRAVIMETRIC  ANALYSIS — continued. 


Ele- 
ment. 

To  convert 

Factor. 

Logarithm 
(to  be  added). 

N 

» 
" 

NITROGEN  (14-01)  AND 
AMMONIUM  (18-042)  —  continued. 
N2              into         (NH4)0SO4 
N205 
Na05             „                       N2 

4-71642 
3-85510 
0-25940 

0-67361 
0-586  04 
1-41396 

ji 
j> 

>5 

)) 

2NaN03 
2KN03 

Ca(N03)2 
Mg(N03)2 

1-57397 
1-87206 
1-51907 
1-37326 

0-19700 
0-27232 
0-181  58 
0-13775 

}| 

n 

» 

NH3              „                         N 
NH4C1 
2NH3            „           (NH4)2S04 

0-82247 
3-14090 
3-87912 

T91512 
0-497  05 
0-588  73 

M 
ft 

NH4C1          „                         N 

»                                  )5                                               ^Hg 

0-26186 
0-31838 

T-418  07 
T'502  95 

II 

n 
» 

(NH4)2S04   „                        N2 
2NH3 
H2S04 

0-21202 
0-25779 
0-74221 

T'326  39 
T  411  27 
T-870  53 

P 

PHOSPHORUS  (P  =  31'04) 
P2                 into                 P205 

2-28866 

0-35958 

II 

» 
)> 

P206                „                       P2 
Ca3(P04)2 
„        CaH4(P04)2 

043694 
2-18391 
1-64824 

T-640  42 
0-339  23 
0-21702 

Pt 
» 
» 
N 

PLATINUM  (Pt  =  195'2) 
(NH4)2PtCl6  into                    N2 
2NH8 
2NH4C1 
'          (NH4)2804 

0-06310 
0-07672 
0-24098 
0-29761 

2-800  04 
2-884  92 
1-381  97 
1-47365 

GRAVIMETRIC    FACTORS. 


17 


FACTORS  AND  THEIR  LOGARITHMS  REQUIRED  IN 
GRAVIMETRIC  ANALYSIS — continued. 


Ele- 
ment. 

To  convert 

Factor. 

Logarithm 
(to  be  added). 

Pt 

PLATINUM  (Pt=  195-2)—  contd. 
KoPtCL*       into                   K2 
2KC1 

0-16085 
0-30673 

T-206  43 
1-48676 

;; 

K20 

0-19376 
0-35846 

T-287  27 
1-55444 

5) 
5) 

Pt                                   2NH4C1 
„        (NH4)2S04 

0-54818 
0-67702 

T-738  92 
1-83060 

K 

POTASSIUM  (K  =  39-l) 
K                     into               KC1 
K2                     „                 K20 

1-90690 
1-20460 

0-280  33 
0-080  84 

» 

KC1                    „                     Cl 

0-47559 

1-677  23 

»> 

„      KHC4H406 
2KC1                  „                 K20 

K2S04 

2-523?0 
0-63171 
1-16866 

0-401  95 
1-80052 
006769 

5? 

KC104                                 KC1 

2KC104             „                K20 
„                  „              K2S04 

0538H 
0-3-1  OOt 

0-628871 

T-730  87 
1-531  44 
1-798  56 

*  International  methods  of  determining  pota-h  were  adopted 
at  the  International  Congress  of  Applied  Chemistry  held  at 
Berlin,  1903  (see  Chemical  News,  No.  2619,J  Feb.  4,  1910). 
The  platinochloride  pp.  is  to  be  dried  at  120-130°  C.,  weighed 
warm,  and  the  following  factors  (which  are  based  on  Berzelius's 
atomic  weight  Pt—  197*2)  used  : — 

K2PtCl6  x  0-3056   =KC1      (log.  T-48515) 

xO-19305  =  K20      (log.  1-28567) 

„       x  0-35714  =  K2S04  (leg.  T'55284) 

t  These  are  the   factors  used  in   connection   with   the  International 
perchloric  acid  method  for  determining  potash  (see  note  above), 
£  Also  reprinted  in  pamphlet  form. 
B 


18 


GRAVIMETRIC    FACTORS. 


FACTORS  AND  THEIR  LOGARITHMS  REQUIRED  IN 
GRAVIMETRIC  ANALYSIS — continued. 


Ele- 
ment. 

To  convert 

Factor. 

Logarithm 
(to  be  added). 

POTASSIUM  (K  =  39  -l)—contd. 

K 

K2O                 into             2KC1 

1-58301 

0-19949 

„ 

„                      „              K2S04 

1-85000 

0-267  17 

»j 

2KN03 

2-14671 

0-331  77 

9) 

K2C03 

1-46709 

0-166  46 

>9 

„    into  2{KNaC4H406,4H20} 

5-99138 

0-777  53 

)J 

into     2KHC4H406 

3-99427 

0-601  44 

» 

2KOH 

1-19125 

0-076  00 

2KOH           „                     K20 

0-83945 

T-92400 

• 

K2C03           „                    K20 

0-68162 

1-83354 

>J 

K2S04           „                    K20 

0-54054 

1-73283 

J> 

2KC1 

0-85568 

1-93231 

KN03            „                        N 

0-13856 

1-141  64 

SILICON  (Si  =  28-3) 

Si 

Si02                  into                  Si 

0-46932 

T-671  47 

SILVER  (Ag=  107-88) 

Ag 

AgBr             into                     Br 

0-42556 

T-628  96 

AgCl              „                      Ag 

0-75262 

1-876  57 

}J 

01 

0-24738 

1-39337 

9) 

HC1 

0-25442 

1-40554 

9) 

AcrNO 

9J                                     »                               •"•&             3 

1-18522 

0-073  80 

» 

Agl                 „                        I 

0-54055 

T-732  83 

SODIUM  (Na  =  23) 

Na 

Na            into                      NaCl 

2-54174 

0-405  13 

99 

Vfl                                                                              N"o    O 
.1.1  do                            55                                                       -i-1  flnV^ 

1  34783 

0-12963 

Na20          „                     2NaCl 

1-88580 

0-275  50 

GRAVIMETRIC    FACTORS. 


19 


FACTORS  AND  THEIR  LOGARITHMS  REQUIRED  IN 
GRAVIMETRIC  ANALYSIS — continued. 


Ele- 
ment. 

To  convert 

Factor. 

Logarithm 
(to  be  added}. 

!• 

SODIUM  (Xa  =  23)  —  continued. 
Na20        into                  Na2S04 
Na2C08 
2NaN03 

2-29145 
1-70968 
2-74226 

0-36011 
0-23291 
0-43811 

• 

2NaOH 

Na2B407    „     Na2B407,  10H20 

1-29058 
1-89109 

0-11079 
0-27671 

jj 

NaCl          „                             Cl 
jj             j>                  JsaHOO3 

0-60657 
1-43702 

T-782  88 
0-15746 

j  » 

M 

2NaCl        „                        Na20 
jj           j,                  NagCO8 

0-53028 
0-90660 
0-58491 

1-724  50 
1-957  42 
T-767  09 

•  ? 

NaNOj      „                             N 
2JSraOH      „                        Na20 

0-16480 
0-77484 

T-21697 
1-889  21 

JJ 
JJ 

Na2C03      „      Na2C03,  10H20 
Na2S04      „                           Na2 
jj          >j                         Na20 

2-69811 
0-32378 
0-43640 

0-431  06 
1-51026 
1-639  89 

Sr 

STRONTIUM  (Sr  =  87'63) 
SrCO3                into                Sr 
SrSO4                   „                   Sr 

0-59358 
0-47703 

1-773  48 
1-678  54 

S 
jj 

1J 

SULPHUR  (8  =  32-07) 
S03         into                             S 
CaS04 
CaS04,  2H20 

H2S04 
(NH4)2S04 

0-40052 
1-70026 
2-15027 

1-22500 
1-65048 

T-602  63 
0-23052 
0-332  49 

0-088  14 
0-21761 

20 


GRAVIMETRIC    FACTORS. 


FACTORS  AND  THBIR  LOGARITHMS  REQUIRED  IN 
GRAVIMETRIC  ANALYSIS — continued. 


Ele- 
ment. 

To  convert 

Factor. 

Logarithm 
(to  be  added). 

S 

SULPHUR  (S  =  32*07)  —  continued. 
S03               into              K2S04 

2-17647 

0-337  75 

n 

ij 

Na2S04 
„                  ,;                MgS04 

1-77432 
1-50356 

0-24903 
0-17712 

Sn 
11 

TiN(Sn=119) 
Sn                   into               Sn02 
Sn02                 „                      Sn 

1-26891 
0-78808 

0-10343 
T-896  57 

Zn 

ZINC  (Zn  =  65-37) 
Zn                  into                 ZnO 

1-24476 

0-095  09 

» 

}> 

ZnS 
ZnCl2 

1-49059 
2-08490 

0-17336 
0-31909 

» 
>» 

ZnO                 „                       Zn 
ZnS                 „                       Zn 

0-80337 
0-67087 

T-904  91 
T'82664 

Example. — 1"327  grams  of  a  substance  gave  0-8470  gram 
BaSO4 :  to  find  the  percentages  of  S03  and  S  present  re- 
spectively. 

Since  1'327  grams  give  0'847  gram  BaS04  100  grams  will 

.      -847  x  100        84-70 
give 


1-327 
Taking  logs. 


1-327 

Log.  84-70   =1-92788 
1-327  =  0-12287 


(subtracting)     1-80501 
Add  log.  (BaS04  into  S08)     1  '53529 


Add  log.  (S03  into  S) 


1-34030  =  21 -89  per  cent.  SOS 
1-60263 


0  94293  =  8-77  per  cent.  S. 

First  find  the  weight  of  the  pp.  that  100  parts  of 
substance  would  give,  then  add  the  log.  of  the  factor  to  get 
percentage  of  substance  sought. 


GRAVIMETRIC    FACTORS. 


21 


Ele- 
merit. 


To  convert 


Factor. 


Logarithm 
(to  be  added}. 


22 


VOLUMETRIC    FACTORS. 


Hence,  "  one  gram  "  in  the  above 


VOLUMETRIC  FACTORS. 

Definition. — A  Normal  Solution  of  a  reagent  is  one  that 
contains  in  a  litre  that  proportion  of  its  molecular  weight  in 
grams  which  corresponds  to  one  gram  of  available  hydrogen 
or  its  equivalent. 

Up  till  recent  years  the  atomic  weights  of  elements  were 
referred  to  hydrogen  as  unity.  Now,  however,  oxygen  =  16 
is  the  standard  of  reference,  and  the  present  atomic  weight  of 
hydrogen  is  taken  as  I'OOS. 
definition  must  actually  be  taken  as  1-008  gram. 

Thus,  a  normal  solution  of  hydrochloric  acid  contains 
36*468  grams  HC1  per  litre;  and  normal  sulphuric  acid 

98-086 

— 2 —  =  49-043  grams  H2S04  per  litre.  Potassium  perman- 
ganate, K2Mn208,  in  acid  solution,  yields  5  atoms  of  oxygen, 
equivalent  to  10  atoms  of  hydrogen ;  hence  a  normal  solution 

of  permanganate   contains    — ^r—  =  31*606    grams   per    litre. 

Normal  alkali  solutions  are  such  that  a  given  volume  requires 
for  neutralization  an  equal  volume  of  a  normal  acid  solution. 


Normal  H2S04 


Normal  HC1 


Normal  HNOa 


grams. 

lc.c.  =  0-049043  H2S04 
„  =  0-048035  S04  . 
„  =  0-040035  S03  . 

Ic.c.  =0-036468  HC1  . 
„  =0-03546  Cl  . 

lc.c.=  0-063018  HN03 
„  =0-06201  NO3  . 
„  =0-05401  N205  . 


Normal  H2C204     1  c.c.  =  0-063024  H2C204,  2H20 
„    =  0-045008  H2C204 

Normal  acid  1  c.c.  =  0-017034  NH3   . 

„    =0-03505    NH4OH      . 

„    =0-101        Na2B4Or      . 
„    =0-19108    Na2B407,  10H20 


Logarithms. 

2-690  58 
2-681  56 
2-602  44 

2-561  91 
2-549  74 

2-799  46 
2-792  46 
2-732  47 

2-799  51 
2-653  29 

2-231  32 
2-544  69 

T-004  32 
T-281  22 


VOLUMETRIC    FACTORS. 


23 


VOLUMETRIC  FACTORS — continued. 


Normal  acid 
(continued). 


Normal  KOH 


Normal  NaOH 


Normal  Na2COs 


Normal  alkali 


grams. 

lc.c.  =  0-028035  CaO    . 

Logarithms. 

2-447  70 

„    =  0-037043  Ca(OH)2      . 

2-56871 

„    =  0-050035  CaCOg 

2-699  27 

„    =  0-085693  Ba(OH)2      . 

2-932  95 

„    =  0-1  57757  Ba(OH)2,  8H20   . 

1-19799 

„    =  0-098685  BaCOg 

2-994  25 

„    =0-02016    MgO  ..       .         . 

2-304  49 

„    -0-04216    MgC08 

2-624  90 

„    =0-056108  KOH        '  .         . 

2-749  02 

,.    -0-0691      K2C03 

2-839  48 

„    -0-18814    KHC4H406 

T-27448 

„    =0-108119  K8C6H607,  H20  . 

1-03390 

„    =  00981  24  KC2H802    . 

2-991  78 

„    =  0-141098  KNaC4H4a6,  4H20 

1-14952 

„    =0-040008  NaOH 

2-602  15 

„    -0-053        Na2C03        . 

2-724  28 

„    -0-14308    Na2C03,  10H20  . 
„    =  0-084008  NaHC03     . 

1-15558 
2-92436 

lc.c.  =  0-056108  KOH.         .         . 

2-749  02 

„    =0-0471      K20   . 

2-67302 

lc.c.  =  0-040008  NaOH 

2-602  15 

„    =0-031        Na20. 

2-491  36 

lc.c.  =  0-053        Na2C03 

2-724  28 

„    =0030       CO,    . 

2-477  12 

„    =0-022        CO2    . 

2-342  42 

lc.c.  =  0-060032  HC2H302     . 

2-778  38 

„    =0-035       B203  .   '     . 

2-544  07 

„    =  0-062024  H3B03 

2-792  56 

„     =0-0505      Na2B407      . 

2-703  29 

„     =0-09554    Na2B407,  10H2O 

2-98019 

VOLUMETRIC  FACTORS. 


VOLUMETRIC  FACTORS — continued. 


Normal  alkali 

grams. 

1  c.c.  =  0-070027  H3C6H507,  H20  . 

Logarithms. 

2-845  27 

(continued). 

„    =  0-122048  benzoic  acid 

T-086  53 

„     =0-088064  butyric 

2-944  80 

„    =  0-410432  cerotic         .       '. 

T-61324 

„    =0-090048  lactic 

2-95447 

„    =0-067024  malic 

2-826  23 

„    =  0-282272  oleic 

1-45067 

„    =0-256256  palmitic 

T-408  67 

„    =  0-284288  stearic 

1-45376 

„    =  0-075024  tartaric  „    . 

2-875  20 

„    =0-18814   KHC4H406 

T-27448 

—  AgN03 

1  c.c.  =  0-010788  Ag      . 

2-032  94 

„    =  0-016989  AgNOg    -   . 

2-23017 

„    =0-003546    Cl     . 

3  549  74 

„    =0-005846    NaCl 

3-766  86 

„    =  0-0053502  NH4Cl      .         | 

3-728  37 

„    =  0-011902  KBr   . 

2-075  62 

„    =  0-007456  KC1    . 

3-87251 

„    =  0-016602  KI      . 

2-22016 

„    =  0-010292  NaBr. 

2-012  50 

„    =  0-006199  Na2HAs04  . 

3-792  32 

±-  Iodine 

lc.c  =  0-0032035  S02  . 

3-505  62 

10 

„    =  0-0041043  H2S03       . 

3-61324 

„    =  0-0126091  NajS08,  7H.O  . 

2-10068 

„    =  0-0097151  K2S03,  2H20     . 

3-987  45 

„    =  0-024822  NajSgOg,  5H20    . 

2-394  84 

„    =  0-004948  As406. 

3-69443 

—  Bichromate 

lc.c.  =  0-005584  Fe       . 

3-746  95 

10 

„    =0-007  184  FeO    . 

3-85637 

„    =0-011  584  FeCO3 

2-063  86 

„    =0-015191    FeS04 

2-181  59 

„    =0  0278022  FeS04,  7H20     . 

2-444  08 

VOLUMETRIC    FACTORS. 


25 


VOLUMETRIC  FACTORS  —  continued. 


KJ-  grams. 

£L  Thiosulphate    1  c.c.  =  0-024822  Na2S203,  5H20 

„    =0-0126921 
,    =000354601 


=  0-007992  Br 


CALCIUM  (Ca  =  40*07) 

N 
1  c.c.  T^  permanganate 


0-0028035  gram  CaO 


„  „  =  0-0050035  gram  CaC03 

„  =0-0086086  gram  CaS04, 

20H2. 

,,    normal  oxalic  acid     =0*028035  gram  CaO 
Cryst.  oxalic  acid  x  0'444  =  CaO    . 
Ferrous  ammonium  sulphate  x  0*07143  =  CaO 


CHLORINE  (Cl  =  35-46) 

N 
1  c.c.  YQ  silver  solution  =  0'003546  gram  Cl . 

=  0-005846  gram  NaCl      . 
or      thiosulphate       solution 
=  0003546  gram   Cl      .       -.""'. 


N 
1  c.c.  YQ  arsenious 


CHROMIUM  (Cr  =  52) 

Metallic  iron  x  0*31 04  =  Cr  . 
„  x  0*5968  =  Cr03 

x  0*8780  =  K2Cr2Or. 
x  1*928    =PbCr04   , 

Ferrous  ammonium  sulphate  x  0'0443  =  Cr    . 
,,  x  0-0853  =  CiO8 

xO*1253  =  K2Cr207 
x  0-2754  =  PbCr04 
N 
1  c.c.  JQ  solution  =  0-003333  gram  Cr03 

„  „       =  0*004903  gram  K2Cr207  . 


Logarithms. 

2*39484 

2-10353 
3-549  74 
3*902  66 


3*447  70 
3-699  27 

3*934  93 
2-447  70 
1*647  38 
2*85388 


3*549  74 
3*766  86 

3*549  74 


T-491  94 
T-775  86 
1*94347 
0-285  19 
2-64640 
2*930  95 
1*09795 
T-439  96 

3*522  84 
3*690  45 


26 


VOLUMETRIC    FACTORS. 


VOLUMETRIC  FACTORS  —  continued. 
COPPER  (Cu  =  63-57) 

1  c.c.  yQ  solution  =  0-006357  gram  Cu  . 

Iron  x  1-138         =  copper    .         .         . 
Ferrous  ammon  mm  sulphate  x  0  *  1  6  2  2  =  copper 

CYANOGEN  (CN  =  26'01) 

N 
1  c.c.  JQ  silver  solution  =  0  005202  gram  CN 

=  0-005404  gram  HCN 
=  0-013022  gram  KCN 


JST 

iodine 


=0-003255  gram  KCN 


POTASSIUM  FERROCYANIDB  (K4FeCy6,  30H2  =  422-348) 
Metallic  iron  x  7  "5  6  3  =  cryst.  potassium  ferrocvanide 
Ferrous  ammonium  sulphate  x  1  -080  =  cryst.  potas- 
sium f  errocyanide     .         .          .         .          . 

POTASSIUM  FERRICYANIDE  (K6Fe2Cy12  =  658*4) 
Metallic  iron  x  5  "895  =  potassium  ferricyanide 
Ferrous  ammonium  sulphate  x  1  '684  =  potassium 
ferricyanide     .         .         .         .         * 

YQ  thiosulphate  x  0*03292  =  potassium  ferricyanide 

GOLD  (Au  =197-2) 

1  c.c.  normal  oxalic  acid  =  0*0657  gram  gold 

IODINE  (I  =126*92) 

N 

1  c.c.  YQ  thiosulphate  =  0*01  26  92  gram  iodine 

IRON  (Fe  =  55-84) 

N 
1  c.c.    A  permanganate,  dichromate, 


or  thiosulphate 


=0*005584  Fe 
=0-007184  FeO    . 
=  0-007984  Fe2Oo 


Logarithms. 


3*803  25 

0-056  14 
1-21005 


5-716  17 

3-732  72 
2-11468 

3-51255 


0-87869 
0-033  42 

0-77048 

0-226  34 
2-517  46 

2-81757 

2-10353 


3-746  95 
3-856  37 
3-902  22 


VOLUMETRIC    FACTORS. 

VOLUMETRIC  FACTORS — continued. 

LEAD  (Pb  =  207-1) 

N 
1  c.c.  ,-x  permanganate    =  0*010355  gram  lead 

1  c.c.  normal  oxalic  acid  =  0*10355    gram  lead 
Metallic  iron        xl"854  =  lead 

Ferrous  ammonium  sulphate  x  0*265  =          lead 


27 

logarithms. 

2-015  15 

T-015  15 
0-268  20 
142325 


MANGANESE  (Mn  =  54'93) 

MnO  -  70-93.     Mn02  =  86'93. 
Metallic  iron  x  0-4918  =  Mn          ... 
x  0-6350  =  MnO       ... 
x  0-7783  =  Mn02      ... 
Ferrous  ammonium  sulphate  x  0*0907  =  MnO 

xO*1112  =  Mn02 
Cryst.  oxalic  acid  x  0*6896  =  Mn0 

1  c.c.  JQ  solution  =  0*003547  grain  MnO        -. 
„  „       =0-004347  gram  Mn02       . 


MERCURY  (Hg=  200-6) 

Ferrous  ammonium  sulphate  x  0*5115 

x  0-6924 


Hg  . 

HgCJ2 


1  c.c.  TTT  solution 


0-02006  gram  Hg    . 

0-02086  gramHg20 
:  0*027 152  gram  HgCl2 


1*691  79 
1*802  77 
1*891  15 
2-95761 
T*046  10 
T-838  60 

3-549  86 
3-638  19 


170886 
T-840  33 

2-302  33 

231931 
2-433  80 


NITROGEN  AS  NITRATES  AND  NITRITES 

N905  =  108-02     N203  =  76*02 
Normal  acid  x  0*0540  =  N00, 


x  0-1011 


KNO, 


Metallic  iron  x  0*3761  =HNO« 


x  0*6035 
x  0-3224 


KN0 


2-732  39 
1-004  75 
1-575  30 

1-78068 
T -508  40 


SILVER  (Ag=  107 -88) 

1  c.c.  ^  NaCl  =  0-010788  gram  Ag      . 
=  0016989     „     AgNO£ 


2-032  94 
2-230  17 


28 


VOLUMETRIC    FACTORS. 

VOLUMETRIC  FACTORS — continued. 


SULPHURETTED  HYDROGEN  (H2S  =  34*086) 

N 

1  c.c.        arsenious  solution  =  0'002556  gram  H2S  . 


TiN(Sn  = 

Metallic  iron  x  1  '0654  =  tin    . 

Ferrous  ammonium  sulphate  x  0*1522  =  tin    . 

N 
Factor    for  T^:  iodine    or    permanganate    solution 

0-00595   . 


ZINC  (Zn  =  65-37) 

Metallic  iron  x  0'5852  =  Zn    . 

0-7285  =  ZnO 

Ferrous  ammonium  sulphate  x  0'0836  =  Zn    . 

0-1041  =  ZnO 

N 
1  c.c.  T    solution  =  0-003268  gram  Zn  . 


NITROMETER  ANALYSIS. 
1  c.c.  NO  at  N.T.R  =  0-6257  mgm.  N 


=  1-3402     „ 

NO    . 

=  1-6975     „ 

N20 

=  2-4121     „ 
=  2-8144     „ 

N205. 

HNOg 

=  3-8009     „ 

KN02 

=  4-5154     „ 

KN08 

=  3-0819     „ 

NaN02 

=  3-7986     „ 

NaN03 

=  5-2294     „ 

C5HnN02 

=  3-3516     „ 

C2H6N02 

CORRECTION    FOR   TEMPERATURE. 


29 


Tempera- 
ture °  C. 

For  use  in  Calibrating 
Instruments. 

For  use  with  Standard  Solutions. 

Weight  of  1 
Litre  of  Water. 

Volume  of  1 
Gram  of  Water. 

Volume  corres- 
ponding with 
1  Litre  at  15°  C. 

Volume  of  1 
c.c.  reduced  to 
15°  C. 

grams. 

c.c. 

c.c. 

c.c. 

5 

998-6 

1-0014 

998-3 

1-0017 

6 

3  > 

|J 

•4 

1-0016 

7 

j  3 

•5 

1-0014 

8 

j  j 

3  J 

•7 

1-0013 

9 

3  j 

•9 

1-0011 

10 

998-5 

1-0015 

999-0 

1-0010 

11 

3  9 

n 

•2 

1-0008 

12 

998-4 

1-0016 

•4 

1-0006 

13 

•3 

1-0017 

•6 

1-0004 

14 

•2 

1-0018 

•8 

1-0002 

15 

•1 

1-0019 

1000-0 

1-0000 

16 

997-9 

1-0021 

•2 

0'9998 

17 

•8 

1-0022 

•4 

0-9996 

18 

•7 

1-0023 

•6 

0-9994 

19 

•5 

1  -0025 

•8 

0-9992 

20 

•3 

1  -0027 

1001-1 

0-9989 

21 

•2 

1-0028 

•3 

0-9987 

22 

997-0 

1-0030 

•6 

0-9984 

23 

996-8 

1-0032 

•8 

0-9982 

24 

•6 

1-0034 

1002-0 

0-9980 

25 

•3 

1-0037 

•3 

0-9977 

COEFFICIENTS  OF  ABSORPTION  OF  GASES  IN  WATER. 


Gas. 

1  volume  of  Water  dissolves  at  760  mm.  Pressure. 

Observer. 

O'C. 

4°C. 

10°  C. 

15°  C. 

20°  C. 

Acetylene,    . 

1-73 

1-53 

1-31 

1-15 

1-03 

Wii.kler 

Air*,  . 

0-02882 

0-02606 

0-02265    0-02046 

0-01870 

3  j 

Ammonia,    . 

1158-08 

1048-23 

898-67  ;770-29t 

69617 

j  Roscoe  and 

\    1  >ittniar 

Carbon  monoxide, 

0-03537 

0-03219 

0-02816   0-02543 

0-02319 

Winkler 

,,       dioxide,   . 

1-713 

1-473 

1-194      ;  1-019 

0-878 

/  Bohr  and 
\       Bock 

Chlorine,      .         . 

3-0362 

2-5852    12-3681 

2-1565 

Sclionfeld 

Hydrogen,    . 

0-02148 

0-02064 

0-01955   0-01883 

0-01819 

Winkler 

,,       sulphide, 

4-3706 

4-0442 

3-5858 

3-2326 

2-9053 

Sehonfeld 

Methane, 

0-05473 

0-05002 

0-04366 

0-03902 

0-03498 

Hiniichs 

Nitric  oxide, 

0-07381 

0-06628 

0-05709 

0-05147 

0-04706 

Winkler 

Nitrous    ,,  . 

1-3052 

1-1346 

09196 

07778 

0-6700 

Cnrius 

Nitrogen,     ..      '  . 

0-02348 

0-02130 

0-01857 

0-01682 

0-01542 

Winkler 

Oxygen, 

0-04890 

0-04397 

0-03802 

0-03415 

0-03102 

Sulphur  dioxide,  . 

79789 

69-828 

56-647 

47-276 

39-374 

Scho'nfeld 

*  Calculated  from  nitrogen  and  oxygen. 


t  At  16°  C. 


30 


RECIPROCALS    OF    NUMBERS. 


TABLE  OF  RECIPROCALS. 


No. 

Reciprocal. 

No. 

Reciprocal. 

No.   Reciprocal. 

No.   Reciprocal 

1 

1 

31 

•03226 

61 

•01639 

91 

•01099 

2 

•5 

32 

•03125 

62 

•01613 

92 

•01087 

3 

•33333 

33 

•03030 

63 

•01587 

93 

•01075 

4 

•25 

34 

•02941 

64 

•01563 

94 

•01064 

5 

•2 

35 

•02857 

65 

•01539 

95 

•01053 

6 

•16667 

36 

•02778 

66 

•01515 

96 

•01042 

7 

•14286 

37 

•02703 

67 

•01493 

97 

•01031 

8 

•125 

38 

•02632 

68 

•01471 

98 

•01020 

9 

•11111 

39 

•02564 

69 

•01449 

99 

•01010 

10 

•1 

40 

•025 

70 

•01429 

100 

•01 

11 

•09091 

41 

•02439 

71 

•01409 

101 

•00990 

12 

•08333 

42 

•02381 

72 

•01389 

102 

•00980 

13 

•07692 

43 

•02326 

73    -01370 

103 

•00971 

14 

•07143 

44 

•02273 

74 

•01351 

104 

•00962 

15 

•06667 

45 

•02222 

75 

•01333 

105    '00952 

16 

•0625 

46 

•02174 

76 

•01316 

106 

•00943  | 

17 

•05882 

47 

•02128 

77 

•01299 

107 

•00935 

18 

•05556 

48 

•02083 

78 

•01282 

108 

•00926 

19 

•05263 

49 

•02041 

79 

•01266 

109 

•00917 

20 

•05 

50 

•02 

80 

•0125 

110 

•00909 

21 

•04762 

51 

•01961 

81 

•01235 

111 

•00901 

22 

•04545 

52 

•01923 

82 

•01-J20 

112 

•00893 

23 

•04348 

53 

•01887 

83    -01205 

113 

•00885 

24 

•04167 

54 

•01852 

84  !  '01191 

114 

•00877 

25 

•04 

55 

•01818 

85 

•01177 

115 

•00870 

26 

•03846 

56 

•01786 

86 

•01163 

116 

•00862 

27 

•03704 

57 

•01754 

87 

•01149 

117 

•00855 

28 

•03571 

58 

•01724 

88 

•01136 

118 

•00847 

29 

•03448 

59 

•01695 

89 

•01124 

119 

•00840 

30 

•03333 

60 

•01667 

90 

•01111 

120 

•00833 

Ex.1.  I*?0  x -01  =  1  =  0-05882. 

Ex.  2.  l- °-  x  -02  =  —  x  2  =  '02326  x  2  =  0'04652. 

Ex.3.   _g_x-005=_x-=_^ 


USEFUL  FACTORS  AND  DATA. 


31 


VARIOUS  USEFUL  FACTORS. 


To  convert  :  — 
Grams  per  litre  into  grains          per  cubic  foot,  . 
„               „         ounces  (av.) 
„        lb. 
,,              ,,         grams  per  fluid  oz, 
,  ,              ,  ,         grains  per  gallon 

Multiplier. 
437-00 
0-99884 
0-06243 
0-43847 
70 

Logarithm. 
2-640  4754 
1-999  4973 
2-795  3773 
1-641  9391 
1-845  0980 

Grains  per  gallon  into  cwts.  per  million  gallons 
,,                ,,        grams  per  litre* 

l-27f.5 
0-014286 

0-105  6839 
2-154  9020 

Percentage  into  grains  per  fluid  oz.    .         . 
Percentage  into  grains  per  lb.    .         .         .         , 

4-375 
70 

0-640  9781 
1-845  0980 

Litres  into  cubic  feet          ..-.'. 
Cubic  inches  into  gallons  .         .         . 

0-035321 
0*003604 

2-548  0345 
3-556  7949 

i,     feet         ,,                                               . 
,,     yardg     ,,          ,,.... 

6-2279 
168-152 

0794  3386 
2-225  7026 

15'68  grains  per  gallon  =  1  ton  per  million  gallons. 
*  Or  divide  by  70. 


USEFUL  DATA. 

I.  Areas  and   Volumes  of  Bodies. 
Area  of  a  circle 

Volume  of  a  sphere     = 


r  =  radius 
,r  =  3-1415926 

0-497    1499 

4^  =  4-1888 
o 

r  =  radius  of  base 
h  =  height 

0-622   0886 

Volume  of  a 

Surface  of  sphere         =  47ir2 

II.  Specific  Gravity. 

To  convert  :  — 

(1)  Degrees  of  Twaddell's  hydrometer  into  sp.  gr.  (water 

=  1000)—  multiply  by  5  and  add  1000 

(2)  Sp.    gr.  (water  =1000)  into   degrees   of  Twaddell's 

hydrometer  —  subtract  1000  and  divide  by  5 

(3)  The  sp.  gr.  of  gases  referred  to  atmospheric  air  as 

34'52xmol.  wt.     mol.  wt. 

umty= 


1  kilogrammetre  =7-2330  foot-pounds, 
1  foot-pound  =  Q'13825  kilogrammetres, 


Logarithms. 


1-099   2099 


0-859   3196 
1-140  6804 


32  USE    OF    LOGARITHMS. 


NOTES  ON  LOGARITHMS. 

Definition. — The  logarithm  of  a  number  N  is  the  value  of  x  which 
satisfies  the  equation  a*=N,  where  a  is  some  given  number. 

Thus  if  a  be  10  (which  is  the  base  of  Briggs'  or  the  ordinary 
logarithms),  the  logarithm  of  100  is  2,  that  of  1000  is  3  ;  and  that  of 
any  number  between  100  and  1000  will  be  greater  than  2  and  less 
than  3,  so  that  it  may  be  represented  by  2  followed  by  places  of 
decimals. 

By  means  of  a  table  of  logarithms  two  numbers  may  be  multiplied 
together  by  adding  their  logarithms  and  divided  by  subtracting  their 
logarithms,  the  result  in  each  case  being  the  number  corresponding 
to  the  logarithm  thus  obtained.  Also  Involution,  or  raising  of 
powers,  is  performed  by  multiplication  of  the  logarithm  of  the  number 
by  the  index  of  the  power;  and  Evolution,  or  extraction  of  roots,  by 
division  of  the  logarithm  of  the  number  by  the  index  of  the  root. 

The  integral  part  of  a  logarithm  is  called  the  characteristic,  the 
decimal  part  the  mantissa.  The  characteristic  may  be  either  positive 
or  negative  (e,g.,  2,  2),*  but  the  mantissa  is  always  positive.  The 
mantissas  only  are  registered  in  the  tables,  the  characteristics  always 
being  found  by  the  following  simple  rules  : — 

(1)  For  numbers  greater  than  unity,  the  characteristic  is  one  less 
than  the  number  of  digits,  and  is  positive. 

(2)  For  numbers  less  than  unity,  the  characteristic  is  one  greater 
than  the  number  of  ciphers  which  precede  the  first  significant  figure, 
and  is  negative* 

Ex.  Log.  437-58  =2 '6410575 
Log.  43758  =1-6410575 
Log.  4-3758  =0-6410575 
Log.  -43758  =1-6410575 
Log.  -043758  =  2-6410575 

Negative  characteristics  are  calculated  according  to  the  ordinary 
rules  of  algebraic  addition  and  subtraction.  A  few  examples  will 
show  the  methods  employed, 

(1)  Addition- 
Add  5-3468541  Add  6'3874654 
3-2685427  2'924o636 


2-6153968  5'3120290 

•f  5  added  to  3  gives  +  2.  -f  6  is  increased  to  +  7  by  the  1 

carried  over  from  the  mantissas, 
and +  7  added  to  2  gives +  5. 

*The  negative  sign  is  placed  over  the  characteristic  to  indicate  that  it  alone  is 
negative.  If  placed  in  front,  like  an  ordinary  negative  sign,  both  characteristic 
and  mantissa  would  become  negative. 


USE    OP   LOGARITHMS.  33 

NOTES  ON  LOGARITHMS — continued. 

( 1 )  Addition — continued. 

Add  2-5632874  Add  3-3010300 

3-2465281  2*9020029 


5-8098155  4-2030329 

Here  the  + 1  carried  over  from  the 
mantissas  is  added_to  3  giving 
2,  and  2  added  to  2  gives  4. 

(2)  Subtraction— 

Rule. — Change  the  sign  of  the  characteristic  in  the  lower  line,  and 
add  as  above. 

From        2-6847658  From        2-3468537 

Subtract  3-2468543  Subtract  5 7654626 


5-4379115  2-5813911 

3  becomes,  on  changing  Here  1  is  carried  over  from  the 

its  sign,  +  3,  and  this  mantissas,  and  has  to  J}e  sub- 

added  to +  2  gives +  5.  tracted  from  2,  giving  3  :  then 

changing  the  &  mt° +  ^»  an(^ 
adding  this  to  3,  we  have +  2. 

From        5-6843252 
Subtract  3-7856310 


3-8986942 

Here  the  1  carried  over 
subtracted  from  5  gives 
6 ;  then  changing  3 
in  to +  3  and  adding  it 
to  6,  we  have  3. 

Proportional  Parts. — When  the  logarithm  of  a  number  consisting 
of  five  figures  or  less  is  required,  it  can  be  found  immediately  in  the 
tables  ;  but  if  the  numbers  consist  of  more  than  five  figures,  a  little 
calculation  is  required  in  order  to  find  its  correct  logarithm.  This 
calculation  is  greatly  facilitated  by  the  use  of  a  table  of  proportional 
parts.  It  will  be  seen,  on  reference  to  the  tables,  that  the  differ- 
ences between  the  logarithms  of  numbers  differing  by  1  in  the  fifth 
figure  remain  remarkably  constant  for  a  great  many  successive 
numbers,  except  at  the  beginning  of  the  tables,  where  'the  changes 
are  rather  rapid.  Thus,  from  66500  to  67500  the  difference  between 
any  two  consecutive  logarithms  is  uniformly  65:  e.g.,  log.  66511 
(  =  4-8228935)  subtracted  from  log.  66512  (=4-8229000)  gives  65. 
Suppose,  then,  we  require  the  logarithm  of  a  number  consisting  of 
six  or  seven  figures,  as  for  instance  66511-37,  how  do  we  proceed  to 
find  it? 


34  USB   OF    LOGAKITHMS. 

NOTES  ON  LOGARITHMS — continued. 

This  is  done  as  follows : — First  write  down  the  next  lower 
logarithm. 

Log.  66511  =  4-8228935, 

then,  since  the  difference  of  1  in  the  fifth  figure  makes  a  difference 
of  65  in  the  logarithm,  a  difference  of  '37  will  make  a  difference  of 
65  x -37  =  24. 

.'.  Log.  66511 -37 -4 -8228935 +  24  =  4 -8228959. 

In  the  table  of  proportional  parts,  however,  the  amount  to  be  added 
for  every  tenth  of  a  unit  is  recorded,  and  by  this  table  the  above 
result  may  be  easily  found  thus  : — 

Log.  66511  =4-8228035 

Proportional  part  for  '3   —  20 

Proportional  part  for  -  07  —  46 

4-82289596 

Conversely,  the  number  to  six,  seven,  or  more  figures  correspond- 
ing to  a  given  logarithm,  is  found  by  a  method  exactly  the  converse 
of  that  given  above. 

Example. — Find  the  number  whose  log.  is  2-9324547. 

2-9324547 

2 '9324535 -log.  865 '96 

12 

10-  -002 

20=  -0004 

855-9624  the  number  required. 

In  the  above  example  the  difference  between  the  given  log.  and 
the  next  lower  in  the  tables  being  12,  the  required  number  will 
evidently  lie  between  855-962  and  855*963,  since  the  proportional 
part  for  2  is  10  and  that  for  3  is  15.  Subtracting  that  for  2,  namely 
10,  we  have  2  left.  Annex  a  cipher  to  the  2,  since  the  figure  to  be 
found  will  occupy  the  next  decimal  place,  and  the  number  20  thus 
obtained  is  the  proportional  part  for  the  figure  4. 


COMPUTATION.  35 


COMPUTATION. 

The  following  examples  will  show  some  of  the  methods  that  may 
be  used  with  great  advantage  for  reducing  labour  in  working  out 
the  results  of  analytical  and  other  chemical  work  : — 

Ex.  1.  Multiply    237-2  by  0'9889 

•9889  =  1 --01 11 
Hence        237'2 


less  the  f 

sum  of   j        .Q2372 

234-56708. 


Ex.  2.  Multiply  578'643  by  2'987 
2-987  =3-  -013 
578-643 
3 


1735-929 

less  the  \      5*78643 
sum  of  /      1  -735929 


1728-406641. 


Ex.  3.  Multiply  182  76  by  5 


Ex.  4.  Multiply  32'8  by  15. 

=  32-8x10  =  328 
+half  of  32-8x10  =  164 

492 


Ex.  5.  Multiply  0'07964  by  25 

=  -07964x^ 
4 

Similarly  to  multiply  by  2^  use  the  fraction 


=  ==1-991. 

4          4 


36  COMPUTATION. 

Ex.G.  247-68  x  125  =  247'68  x  Ig29=247680 

8  8 

=30960. 
Similarly  to  multiply  by  12 '5  use  1%*-, 

and  to  multiply  by  '125,  simply  divide  by  8. 

Ex.  7.  In  like  manner,  to  divide  by  25, 


100 

=  230-72. 

APPROXIMATIONS. 

In  many  cases  the  results  of  chemical  investigations  may  be 
regarded  as  accurate  to  the  second  or  third  decimal  place  only  : 
hence  it  is  simply  misleading  (not  to  say  deceptive)  to  calculate 
such  results  to  the  fourth  or  fifth  place  of  decimals.  In  these 
cases  the  following  methods  of  obtaining  approximate  results, 
correct  to  the  first  or  second  place  of  decimals,  will  be  found 
invaluable. 

Rule  for  multiplication. — Write  the  multiplier  backwards  under 
the  multiplicand,  and  multiply  in  the  usual  way,  each  digit  of  the 
multiplier  being  multiplied  into  the  figure  immediately  above  it, 
those  to  the  right  being  ignored,  except  that  next  to  it,  from  which 
we  get  the  amount  to  carry  forward. 

The  amount  to  be  carried  forward  is  taken  as  the  nearest 
multiple  of  ten.  Thus 

any  number  from    1  to    4  counts  zero. 

5  to  10      „       1 
10  to  14      „       1 
„  „          15  to  20      „       2  and  so  on. 

Omit  all  decimal  points  at  first,  the  position  of  the  decimal  point 
in  the  answer  being  fixed  afterwards,*  as  shown  in  the  examples 
below. 

Ex.  8.  Multiply  47 '26  by  12 '43,  giving  four  figures  in  the  answer. 

4726  In  the  second  line  2x6  =  12 

3421  .*.  carry  1 

„      third  line       4x2  =  8 

4726  .'.  carry  1 

945  „      fourth  line  3x7  =  21 

189  .  •.  carry  2 
14 

5874 


*  "When  I  calculate  I  seldom  trouble  my  head  about  the  position  of  the  decimal 
point  in  my  answer  until  everything  else  is  finished.  There  are  many  cleverly- 
contrived  rules  about  the  position  of  the  decimal  point,  but  we  forget  them  in 
practical  work.  Better  never  learn  them." — Prof.  John  Perry,  F.R.S. 


APPROXIMATIONS.  37 

To  find  where  to  put  the  decimal  point,  we  notice  that  as  47  is 
nearly  50,  the  result  will  be  rather  less  than  50  x  12  =  600.  Hence 
the  answer  is  obviously  587 '4. 

If  greater  accuracy  had  been  required,  we  should  have  proceeded 
thus : — 

47260 
3421 

47260 

9452 

1890 

142 

58744    Result  587 '44. 


Ex.  9.  Multiply  3'72  by  '0005962. 

Here  we  make  3*72  the  multiplier  as  it  shortens  the  work. 

5962  As  3 '7 2  is  nearly  4,  the  answer  will  be  rather 

273  less  than  '0006  x  4  =  '0024. 

17886 
4173 

119  Hence  the  result  is  '0022178,  or  "00222  correct 
to  the  fifth  decimal  place. 

22178 


Ex.  10.  To  find  the  number  of  feet  in  726*422  metres,  given 
that  1  metre  =  3*2808  feet, 

726422 

80823  726x3  =  2178.    hence     the    answer    is     clearly 

2383-245. 

2179266 

145284 

53114 

581 

2383245 


Rule  for  division. — Proceed  as  in  the  ordinary  way,  but  instead 
of  adding  zeros  to  the  dividend  cut  off  digits  from  the  divisor, 
carrying  forward  a  figure  from  the  digit  rejected,  just  as  in 
multiplication. 


38  APPROXIMATIONS. 

Ex.  11.  Divide  2'71828  by  3'1416. 


3,1,4,1,6)271828     (86525 
251328 


Since    —  =0'9,    the    answer    is 

3 


evidently  0'86525. 
1650 
1571 


79 
63 

16 

15 


Ex.  12.  How  many  cubic  feet   would  be   occupied   by   1897 '6 
gallons  of  water  ?     (6'228  gallons  occupy  1  cubic  foot.) 

6,2,2,8)18976     (3047 

18684  Note  that  as  292  is  not  divisible 

by   622,   we  put  zero  in   the 
292  quotient  and  then   divide  by 

249  62.     The  result  is  3047. 

43 
42 

Jl 

Ex.  13.  How  many  litres  correspond  to  6279864  cubic  inches  ? 
(1  litre  =  61*035  cubic  inches.) 

6,1,0,3,5)6279864    (1028896 
61035 

Here,  and  in  similar  cases,  pro- 

176364  ceed    exactly  as  in    ordinary 

122070  division  until  all  the  figures  in 

the  dividend  have  been  brought 

54294  down,  then  begin  to  abbreviate. 

48828  The  result  is  seen  at  once  to 

be  102889-6. 

5466 
4882 

584 
549 

35 


LOGARITHMIC    COMPUTATION.  39 


Examples  requiring  the  use  of  Logarithms. 

Ex.  14.  To  find  a  factor  to  multiply  the  number  of  c.c.  of 
normal  sulphuric  acid  required  to  saturate  20  c.c.  of  gas-liquor  so 
as  to  give  ounces  of  H2S04  required  per  gallon 

Let  x  be  the  number  of  c.c.  of  normal  sulphuric  acid  used. 

Then  x  c.c.  contain  '049  x  grams  of  H2S04 
•049  x  grams  for  20  c.c.  will  be 

•049  x  4545-96 


20 
or 

•049  X  4545-96 


x  ounces  H2S04  per  gallon. 


20  x  28-3495 
To  find  the  value  of  the  fraction  :— 

log.  -049       =2-6901961  log.  20          =1-3010300 

„     4545-96-3-6576260  „     28'3495  =  1 '4525459 

2-3478221  2*7535759 

2-7535759 

1-5942462  =  0-39287. 

The  log  thus  obtained  may  now  be  abbreviated  to  1*59425. 
Suppose  that  32*8  c.c.  of  normal  H2S04  were  required,  then 

log.  32-8=1-51587 
1-59425 


1'11012  =  12-89  ounces  H2S04  per  gallon. 

Logarithms  should  not  always  be  used  in  similar  cases,  since  by 
cancelling  out  common  factors  in  numerator  and  denominator  some 
fractions  reduce  to  very  simple  forms.  Thus  in  a  certain  calcula- 
tion the  following  factor  was  required  :  — 


Ex.  15.  which  readily  reduces  to  |. 


40  INDIRECT    ANALYSIS. 


INDIRECT  ANALYSIS. 

The  methods  used  are  best  shown  by  examples. 

Kx.  1.  A  mixture  of  chlorides  of  potassium  and  sodium  weighs 
0-9800  gram,  and  it  contains  0'5633  gram  of  chlorine  :  to  find  the 
amount  of  each  chloride  present. 

Let        x= weight  of  NaCl  present 

y=     „       KOI      „ 

1  part  by  weight  of  NaCl  contains  0-6066  Cl 

1     „  „  KC1          „       0-4756  Cl 

(See  Table  of  Percentage  Compositions.) 

x+  y  =  0-9800        (i) 

•6066a;+  '4756i/  =  0'5633       (ii) 

(i)  x  -4756        -4756a  +  -4756s/  =  0-4661 
•1310a;  =0-0972 

x=~^  =0-7420  gram  NaCl 
From  (i)        y  =  0'9800  -  -7420 = 0-2380  gram  KC1. 
Hence  the  mixture  contains 

•^2=75-71%  NaCl 
and  24-29%  KCL 

The  general  rule  in  this  case  is  found  as  follows  : — 

Let  w= weight  of  mixed  chlorides  of  sodium  and  potassium 

z= weight  of  chlorine 
and  x= weight  of  NaCl  present. 

Then  '6066a;  +  -4756  (w-x)=z 
•13LC+-4756  w=s 


•4756        -4756 
or       -27544a=  2'1026z  -w 

x  =  3-6305(2-10262-^). 

Hence  the  rule  :  — 

Multiply  the  weight  of  chlorine  present  by  2  '1026,  and  subtract  from 
the  product  the  weight  of  the  mixed  chlorides.  The  remainder  multi- 
plied by  3  '6305  will  give  the  weight  of  sodium  chloride  present  in  the 
mixture. 

log.  2-1026  =  0-32276  log.  3-6305  =  0'55997 


INDIRECT   ANALYSIS.  41 

The  above  rule  gives  the  best  results  when  the  chlorides  present 
are  in  approximately  equal  amounts. 

Ex.  2.  0'9000  gram  of  a  mixture  of  calcium  and  strontium 
carbonates  yields  1'1892  grams  of  sulphates  of  calcium  and  strontium. 
What  is  the  percentage  composition  of  the  mixture  of  carbonates  ? 

Since        CaC03=  100  and  CaS04  =  136 

1  gram  of  CaC03  will  yield  1'36  grams  CaS04. 
Similarly  1       „       SrC03         „  1-244    „      SrS04. 

(See  p.  51.) 

Then  if  the  mixture  contains  x  grams  of  CaC03 
and  y       „      „  SrCO, 

x  grams  CaC03  become  1'36     x  grams  CaS04 
and  y      „      SrC03       „       1*244  y      „      SrS04 

x  +  y          =0-9000        (i) 
1-3&C+1  -244i/  =  T1892       (ii) 
(i)xl-36        l-36a  +  l-360t/  =  l-2240 
(ii)  1-36&+  1-2440  =1-1892 

=   -0348 


Hence  the  mixture  consisted  of 

—  ^  —  =33-33%  calcium  carbonate 
and  66'67%  strontium  carbonate. 


42 


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52  NOTES    ON    INDICATORS. 

NOTES  ON  INDICATORS. 

I. — Litmus  solution. — A  solution  of  a  carbonate  whilst  being 
titrated  should  be  boiled  to  expel  the  free  C02,  otherwise 
it  is  easy  to  overstep  the  exact  point  of  neutrality.  The 
titration  cannot  be  done  by  gas-light. 

According  to  B.  Reinitzer  (see  Abstract,  Analyst,  1894,  p.  255)  litmus  is 
the  most  serviceable  indicator,  excelling  methyl  orange  in  sharpness  of 
change  of  colour  and  sensitiveness,  while  it  possesses  an  advantage  over 
phenol-phthalein  in  being  capable  of  being  used  in  the  presence  of  ammonium 
salts.  Good  litmus  should  be  used  ;  the  solution  must  be  boiled  for  seven  or 
eight  minutes  and  then  neutralized  with  HC1,  so  that  the  wine-red  colour 
remains  even  on  further  boiling :  the  solution  is  then  cooled,  and  an  equal 
volume  of  strong  alcohol  added.  The  stock  solution  should  be  kept  in  a 
bottle  with  a  delivery  pipette  inserted  through  the  cork.  The  final  change 
of  colour  is  sharpest  when  the  liquid  to  be  titrated  is  boiled  for  seven  or 
eight  minutes  and  then  well  cooled.  Lunge  has  found  (see  Abstract  Analyst, 
1895,  p.  65)  that  litmus  is  only  twice  as  sensitive  a*  methyl  orange,  against 
eight  times  as  claimed  by  Reiuitzer.  With  normal  acid  practically  identical 
results  are  obtained,  but  methyl  orange  is  preferable  on  account  of  its  speed 
and  the  precautions  to  be  observed  in  the  use  of  litmus.  It  is  only  with 
decinormal  acid  that  litmus  is  undoubtedly  superior,  and  Reinitzer's  method 
of  titration  must  be  observed.  Whatever  indicator  be  used,  the  fluid  must 
be  cold  when  titrated. 

If  it  is  desired  to  titrate  carbonates,  using  litmus  or  phenol- 
phthalein  as  indicator,  the  boiling  should  be  carried  out  in 
vessels  of  porcelain,  platinum  or  silver  ;  for  even  Jena  glass 
is  attacked  by  hot  soda  solutions  (Lunge). 

II. — Methyl  orange  (the  sodium  salt  of  dimethyl-amido-azo- 
ben/ene-sulphonic  acid). 

Solution. — One  gram  in  a  litre  of  distilled  water. 

Unlike  litmus,  this  indicator  is  unaffected  by  C02,  H2S, 
boric,  arsenious,  hydrocyanic,  oleic,  stearic,  palmitic,  and 
carbolic  acids,  &c.  It  must  not  be  used  for  organic  acids  ; 
nor  in  the  presence  of  nitrous  acid  or  nitrites,  which  decom- 
pose it.  It  acts  admirably  with  mineral  acids,  and  with 
ammonia  and  its  salts.  Ordinary  temperatures  should  be 
observed. 

Colour  reaction. — Faint  yellow  if  alkaline,  pink  if  acid. 

The  use  of  methyl  orange  is  recommended  by  Lunge 
(1903)  for  all  cases  except  that  of  weak  acids,  for  which 
phenol-phthalein  should  be  employed.  The  strength  of 
solutions  titrated  should  not  be  less  than  one-fifth  normal. 

As  methyl  orange  is  often  adulterated  with  dextrin  and 
other  substances,  every  new  lot  purchased  should  be  carefully 
tested,  especially  as  to  whether  it  gives  a  sharp  change  of 
colour  with  a  mineral  acid. 

III.-  Phenol-phthalein  (C20H1404). 

Solution.— Dissolve  4  grams  in  600  c.c.  of  strong  alcohol, 
then  add  gradually  with  constant  stirring  400  c.c.  of 
distilled  water. 


NOTfiS   ON   INDICATORS.  53 

It  is  useless  for 'the  titration  of  free  ammonia  or  its  com- 
pounds, or  for  the  fixed  alkalies  when  salts  of  ammonia  are 
present.  Unlike  methyl  orange,  it  is  specially  useful  in 
titrating  all  varieties  of  organic  acids — viz.,  oxalic,  acetic, 
citric,  tartaric,  &c.  It  may  be  used  either  in  alcoholic  solu- 
tions or  in  mixtures  of  alcohol  and  ether.  It  gives  no  colour 
with  bicarbonates. 

Colour  reaction. — Colourless  in  neutral  or  acid  liquids,  but 
rendered  purple-red  by  faint  excess  of  caustic  alkali. 
IV.— Cochineal  solution. 

Solution. — Digest  one  part  of  powdered  cochineal  with  10 
parts  of  25  per  cent,  alcohol. 

It  is  not  very  much  modified  in  colour  by  C02,  and  may 
be  used  by  gas-light.     Most  useful  in  titrating  solutions  of  the 
alkaline  earths,  such  as  lime  and  baryta-water.     Inapplicable 
in  the  presence  of  even  traces  of  Fe  or  Al  compounds  or  acetates. 
Colour  reaction. — Turned  violet  by  alkalies ;  the  original 
yellowish-red  colour  being  restored  by  mineral  acids. 
V.— Phenacetolin. 

Solution. — Two  grams  in  a  litre  of  alcohol. 
This  indicator  may  be  used   to  estimate  the  amount  of 
KHO  or  NaHO  in  the  presence  of  K2C03  or  Na2C03,  or  of 
CaO  in  the  presence  of  CaC03. 

Colour  reaction. — 

With  NH3  and  normal  alkaline  carbonates— dark  pink. 
„  bicarbonates  — intense  pink. 

„  mineral  acids  .  — golden  yellow. 

VL— Rosolic  Acid  (C20H160?). 

Solution. — Two  grams  in  a  litre  of  50  per  cent,  alcohol. 
This  indicator  is  excellent  for  all  the  mineral,  but  useless 
for  the  organic  acids,  except  oxalic.     It  may  be  relied  on  for 
the  neutralization  of  S02  with  ammonia  to  normal  sulphite. 

Colour  reaction. — The  pale  yellow  colour  is  unaffected  by 
acids,  but  changed  to  violet-red  by  alkalies. 
VII.— Lacmoid. 

Solution. — Three  grams  may  be  dissolved  in  a  litre  of  dilute 
alcohol,  but  Forster  recommends  the  addition  of  5  grams  of 
naphthol  green  to  the  above.  The  effect  is  to  produce  a  more 
decided  blue  colour  with  alkalies  than  is  given  by  lacmoid  alone. 

Colour  reaction. — Blue  in  alkaline,  red  in  acid,  solution. 
VIIL-Congo  Red. 

Solution.— One  gram  in  100  c.c.  of  10  per  cent,  alcohol. 
Specially  useful  in  determining  free  mineral  acids  in  the 
presence  of  most  organic  acids. 

Colour  reaction. — Eed  in  alkaline  solution,  turning  blue 
with  excess  of  acid. 

Turmeric  Paper— Digest  one  part  of  powdered  turmeric  with  six  parts  of  weak 
alcohol,  filter,  and  steep  some  filter  paper  in  the  filtrate.  The  paper  when  dry, 
must  exhibit  a  fine  yellow  tint,  and  be  readily  wetted  by  aqueous  fluids.  Cut  into 
strips  and  keep  in  a  well -stoppered  bottle  covered  with  black  paper. 


54        PRECIPITATING  POWERS  OF  A  FEW  COMMON   REAGENTS. 

THE  PRECIPITATING  POWERS  OF  A  FEW  COMMON 
REAGENTS. 

1.  Ammonium  oxalate.     (NH4)2C204,  OH^ 

40  grams  per  litre. 
For  1  gram  taken 

10  c.c.  will  precipitate  15"78  per  cent.  CaO. 
28-17         „        CaC03. 
38-31        „        CaS04. 
29-11 


2.  Barium  chloride.     BaCl2,  20H2. 

100  grams  per  litre. 
For  1  gram  taken 

10  c.c.  will  precipitate  13-11  per  cent.  S. 
„  „  32-79        „        S03. 

40-16        „         H2S04. 
55-74        „        CaS04. 

3.  Hydrogen  disodium  phosphate.     Na2HP04,  120H2. 

100  grams  per  litre. 
For  1  gram  taken 

10  c.c.  will  precipitate  11  '17  per  cent.  MgO. 

23-46        „        MgC03. 

33-51         „        MgS04. 

4.  Magnesia  Mixture. 

Dissolve  40  grams  of  "Magnesia"  in  HC1,  and  add  a 
solution  of  200  grams  of  NH4C1  in  the  least  possible  quantity 
of  water.  Add  0'960  ammonia  till  a  slight  precipitate 
forms,  and  filter.  Make  up  the  clear  filtrate  to  1500  c.c. 
with  distilled  water,  and  add  750  c.c.  0*960  ammonia. 
Shake  well,  allow  to  stand,  and  filter  for  use.  This  solu- 
tion remains  clear  on  diluting  with  fairly  strong  ammonia, 
and  for  1  gram  of  a  substance  taken 

10  c.c.  will  precipitate  60  per  cent.*  Ca3P208. 

Thus,  if  1  gram  of  a  Belgian  Phosphate  were  taken  for 
analysis,  10  c.c.  would  doubtless  be  sufficient  to  precipitate 
the  P206  present,  but  15  c.c.  would  be  the  proper  amount  to 
add,  the  excess  being  tested  for  in  the  filtrate  in  the  usual 
way. 
6.  Ammonium  molybdate  solution. 

Dissolve  50  grams  of  ammonium  molybdate  in  200  c.  c. 
of  '960  ammonia  at  a  gentle  heat,  and  pour  into  a  mixture  of 
400  c.c.  strong  nitric  acid,  and  400  c.c.  water  contained  in  a 
beaker  standing  in  water,  adding  the  molybdate  solution 
slowly  with  constant  stirring.  Allow  the  solution  to  stand, 
and  filter  for  use. 

100  c.c.  will  precipitate  O'lO  gram  P206. 

*  The  strength  of  each  batch  should  be  determined  and  marked  on  the  stock 
bottle.    It  usually  comes  out  about  65  per  cent. 


WEIGHTS    AND    MEASURES. 


55 


I.  IMPERIAL  SYSTEM. 

Avoirdupois   Weight. 

16  drams  (dr.)  =  l  ounce  (oz.)  =437*5  grains* 


16  ounces  =  1  pound  (Ib. )  =  7000 

14  pounds  =1  stone 

28      ,,  =1  quarter 

100       , ,  =1  cental 

4  quarters  =  1  hundred  weight  (cwt.)  =   112  Ib. 

20cwts.  =lton  =  2240lb. 


log.    437-5  =  2-640  9781 
log.  7000    =3-845  0980 


log.  112  =  2-0492180 
log.2240  =  3'3502480 


Note.— I  dram  =  27 -34375  grains  (log.  1'436  8581). 
24  grains  (and  its  multiples  48,   72,   120,  and  240  grains)  are  legal 
weights  and  are  commonly  called  pennyweights. 

Troy  Weight. 

1  troy  ounce  (oz.  tr.)  =  480  grains*  |  log.  2 '681  2412 
Weights  less  than  a  troy  ounce  are  expressed  as  decimals  of  an  ounce, 
not  in  grains.     For  greater  weights,  ounces  only  are  used,  there  being  no 


troy  pound. 


Apothecaries'   Weight. 

20  grains*  (gr.)  =1  scrupl 

3  scruples  or  60  grains   =1  drachm  (3) 
8  drachms  or  480  grains  =  1  ounce  (3) 

Apothecaries'  Measures. 
60  minims  (min.)  =  l  fluid  drachm  (fl.  dr.  or/  3^ 

8  fluid  drachms  =1  fluid  ounce  (fl.  oz.  or  /"§) 
20  fluid  ounces      =1  pint  (0)t 

8  pints  =  1  gallon  (C)  $ 

Relations  of  Apothecaries'  Measures  to  Weights. 
(All  liquids  to  be  measured  at  62°  Fah.) 


1  minim  is  the  measure  of         0'9115  grain  weight  of  water 
1  fluid  drachm         ,,                 54*687    grains            ,, 
1  fluid  ounce           ,,               437  '5           ,,                ,, 
Ipint                      „              8750 
1  gallon                   „            70000§ 

Logarithms. 
1-959  7368 
1-737  8881 
2-640  9781 
3-942  0081 
4-845  0980 

1  pint    —  34  '6829  cubic  inches    

1-540  1151 

1  gallon  =  277  -463            ,,             
1  gallon  =  0-16057  cubic  foot          

2-4432051 
1-205  6614 

Cubic  inches  x  0  '02883  —pints     ...... 

2-459  8849 

x  0-003604  =  gallons  
Cubic  feet      x6'228       =  gallons  

3-556  7949 
0794  3386 

*  The  grain  is  common  to  Avoirdupois,  Troy,  and  Apothecaries'  Weights. 

t  0  =  octarius,  i.e.,  one-eighth  I  C=(Roman)  Congius. 

§  According  to  H.  J.  Chaney 

One  gallon  once  distilled  water  weighs  70000-5  grains. 
,,         twice  ,,  „  7UOOO-0      ,, 

,,        well  water  weighs  70066*6     „ 


56 


WEIGHTS   AtfD   MEASURES. 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES—  continued. 
Long  Measure. 

12  inches  =  1  foot  I    4  poles       =1  chain 

3  feet  =lyard  |  40  poles       =  1  furlong 

6  feet  =1  fathom  I    8  furlongs  =  1  mile  =1760  yards 

5£  yards  =  1  rod,  pole,  or  perch  | 

Square  Measure. 
144  square  inches  =  1  square  foot 


feet  = 


40 


ee  =         ,,       yard 
yards  =  1      ,,       rod,  pole,  or  perch 
,        poles  =1  rood 

4  roods  =  1  acre  =  4840  square  yards 
640  acres  =  1  square  mile 


Cubic  or  Solid  Measure. 


1728  eu 
27     , 

1  cubic  inch  of  wa 

M 

1  cubic  foot 

>  > 

1  cubic  yard 

sic  inches  = 
feet     = 

ter*  at  62°  ] 

1  cubic  foot              log.  1728  = 
1     ,,     yard             log.      27  = 

?ahr.  weighs  252  '286  grains 
0  -67665  oz.  (av.) 
0-036041  Ib. 
996  -458  oz.  (av.) 
9                    62-2786  Ib. 
28-2491  kilograms 
0-75068  tons 

=  3-237  5437 
=  1-431  3638 
Logarithms. 
2-401  8931 
1-760  9150 
2-550  7951 
2-998  4587 
1-794  3388 
1*461  0046 
1-875  4546 

Measures  of  Capacity. 

4  gills     =1  pint 
2  pints   =1  quart 
4  quarts  =  1  gallon 

Ale,  Beer,  and  Porter  Measure. 

The  following  measures  between  square  brackets,  though  in  common 
use,  are  not  officially  recognized  : — 


4  gills 
2  pints       .   = 
4  q  Hurts        = 
[9  gallons       = 
2  firkins        = 
2  kilderkins  = 
3        „ 
3  hogsheads  = 

L  pint 
[  quart 
L  gallon 
firkin 
kilderkin  =   18  gallons 
barrel       =36      ,, 
hogshead  =   54      ,, 
butt         =108      ,, 

Dry  Measure. 


2  pints  =1  quart 
4  quarts  =  1  gallon 
2  gallons  =1  peck 


4  pecks  =1  bushel 
8  bushels  =  ^quarter 
4  quarters  =  1  chaldron 


i.e.,  distilled  water  freed  from  air. 


WEIGHTS    AND    MEASURES.  57 

WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES — continued. 

II.  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES  OF  THE  METRIC  SYSTEM. 

Measures  of  Weight. 

The  metric  standard  of  weight  is  the  kilogram,  which  is  represented  by 
a  certain  iridio-platiiium  weight  deposited  with  the  Board  of  Trade. 

One-thnnsandth  part  of  this  is  the  grain,  which  constitutes  the 
practical  unit  of  weight,  the  fractions  and  multiples  of  which  are  thus 
designated  : — 


O'l      gram  =  l  decigram 
O'Ol       ,,     =1  centigram 
O'OOl     ,,     =1  milligram 


10  grains  =  1  dekagram 
100      ,,     =1  hectogram 
1000      ,,     =1  kilogram 


Measures  of  Capacity. 

The  standard  litre  is  the  volume  of  a  kilogram  of  pure  water  at  4°  C. 
under  standard  barometric  pressure. 

The  value  of  the  litre  in  terms  of  the  cubic  centimetre  has  been  the 
subject  of  numerous  experiments.  Very  exact  measurements  made  during 
the  last  few  years  have  shown  that 

1  litre  =  1000 '028  cubic  centimetres  (c.c.,  c.  cm.,  or  cm3.). 
Hence  in  all  but  the  most  refined  experiments  the  volume  of  one  cubic 
centimetre  may  be  taken  as  one-thousandth  part  of  that  of  the  litre  (i.e. 
one  millilitre  or  mil*). 

1  decilitre  =  100  c.c.  |  1  centilitre  =  10  c.c. 

Measures  of  Length. 

The  metre  is  represented  by  the  length,  at  0°  C.,  of  a  certain  iridio- 
platiuum  bar  deposited  with  the  Board  of  Trade.  The  fractions  and 
multiples  are  as  follows  : — 


O'l      metre  =  1  decimetre  (dm.) 
O'Ol         ,,     =1  centimetre  (cm. ) 
O'OOl      ,,     =1  millimetre  (mm.) 


10  metres  =  1  dekametre 
100      ',,      =1  hectometre 
1000  =1  kilometre 


O'OOl  mm.  =1  micron  1»  =  0 '00004  inch  (nearly). 
0*000001  mm.  =1  micromillimetret  (w)  =  Q '00000004  inch  (nearly). 

TABLES  FOR  THE  CONVERSION  OF  METRIC  INTO  IMPERIAL 
MEASURES  AND  vice  versa. 

A.  Linear  Measure. 
Metric  into  Imperial.  _Logarithms. 


1  millimetre  (mm. }—  0'0393701  inches 
1  centimetre  (cm.)  =  0'393701  ,, 
1  decimetre  (dm.)  =  3 '937011  „ 
1  metre  (m.)  =39 '370113 

,,  =   3'280843  feet 

,,  =   1-093614  yards 

1  kilometre  (kin.)  =  1093:61426  ,, 
„  =  0-621372  mile 


2'595  1666 
1  595  1666 
0'595  1666 
1-595  1665 
0-515  9855 
0-038  8642 
S'038  8642 
1-793  3517 


*»*  33  cm.  =13  inches  within  O'OOS  inch  in  deficiency. 
127  cm.  =50  inches  within  O'OOOOS  inch  in  excess. 

*  For  pharmaceutical  purposes  the  terms  mil  (= millilitre),  decimil  (01  mil)  and 
centimil  (0-01  mil)  have  been  legalized  and  are  in  regular  use. 
t  The  prefix  micro  always  indicates  a  milliouth  part  of  the  unit. 


58 


WEIGHTS   AND    MEASURES. 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES — continued. 


Imperial  into  Metric. 
1  inch  =  2*540  centimetres 
1  foot  =30-480          „  .       'i 

lyard  =  0 '9 14399  metre 
1  mile=  1 '6093  kilometres     , 


Logarithms. 
0-404  8337 
1-484  0150 
1-961  1357 
0-206  6370 


*  1613  metres  =  1764  yards,  within  0*008  inch  in  deficiency. 


mm.  Inch. 
1= -03937 
2= -07874 
3='11811 
4= -15748 
5= '19685 

6  =-23622 

7  ='27559 

8  ='31496 

9  ='35433 


Metres.   Feet. 
1=   3-2808 
2=   6-5616 
3=  9-8424 

4  =  13-1232 

5  =  16-4040 

6  =  19-6848 

7  =  22-9656 

8  =  26-2464 

9  =  29-5272 


Inches,  mm. 
1=   25-4 
2=   50-8 
3=   76-2 

4  =  101-6 

5  =  127-0 

6  =  152-4 

7  =  177-8 

8  =  203-2 

9  =  228-6 


Feet.  Metres. 

1  =  0-3048 

2  =  0-6096 

3  =  0-9144 

4  =  1-2192 

5  =  1-5240 

6  =  1-8288 

7  =  2-1336 

8  =  2-4384 

9  =  2-7432 


B.  Square  Measure. 

Metric  into  Imperial. 

1  square  decimetre  (dm2.)  =   15*500  square  inches 

1  square  metre  (m'2.)  or  centiare=   10'7639  square  feet  . 

,,  ,,  =     1  "I960  square  yards 

1  are  (100  square  metres)  =119'60          ,,          ,, 

,,  ,,  =     0-024711  acres 

Imperial  into  Metric. 

1  square  inch  =  6  "4516  square  centimetres 
1  square  foot  =9*2903  square  decimetres 
1  square  yard  =  0  "836126  square  metres 

1  acre  =0 '40468  hectare 

1  square  mile  (640  acres)  =  259 -00  hectares    . 


Logarithms. 
1-1903317 
1-031  9697 
0-077  7312 
2-077  7312 
2-3928903 


0-809  6674 
0-968  0297 
1  9222717 
1-6071117 
2-413  2998 


0.  Cubic  Measure  and  Measures  of  Capacity. 

Metric  into  Imperial,  etc.  _ 

1  cubic  centimetre  (c.c.)=  0 '06 10  cubic  inch         .        .  2'785  3298 

,,  =16-894  minims       .         ...  1/227  7325 

,,  =  0-28157  fluid  drachm  .         .         .  1-449  5864 

„  =   0-035196  fluid  ounce    .         .         .  2'5464933 

1  litre  =61-024  cubic  inches       .         .         .  17855007 

„  =35-1960  fluid  ounces      .         .    /    .  1-5464933 

=   175980  pints       ....  Q'2454633 

„  =   0-2200  gallon       ....  1 '342  4227 

1  hectolitre  =  2'75  bushels        ....  0'439  3327 

1  cubic  metre  (m3. )         =35-3148  cubic  feet         .         .         .  1'547  9567 

,,  =  1 -307954  cubic  yards  .         .         .  01165924 

%*  25  litres  =  44  pints  within  0"005  pint  in  deficiency. 
5  dekalitres  =  ll  gallons  within  0'002  gallon  in  deficiency. 


WEIGHTS    AND    MEASURES. 


59 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES—  continued. 


c.c. 

1  = 

2  = 

3  = 

4  = 

5  = 

6  = 

7  = 

8  = 


Cubic  Inch. 

0-061024 

0-122048 

0  183072 

0-244096 

0-305120 

0-366144 

0-427168 

0-488192 

0-549216 


Litres.  Fluid  Ounces.  Pints.    Gallons. 
1=   35-1960=   1-7598  =  0-22 
2=   70-3920=   3-5196  =  0-44 

3  =  105-5880=  5-2794  =  0-66 

4  =  140-7840=   7-0392  =  0-88 

5  =  175-9800=   8-7990  =  1-10 

6  =  211-1760  =  10-5588  =  1-32 

7  =  246-3720  =  12-3186  =  1-54 

8  =  281-5680  =  14-0784  =  1-76 

9  =  3167640  =  15-8382  =  1 -98 


1  cubic  inch  = 
1  cubic  foot  = 
1  cubic  yard  = 


Imperial  into  Metric. 
16-387  cubic  centimetres 
28-317  cubic  decimetres 
0*764553  cubic  metre 


1  minim  =     0'059  cubic  centimetre 

1  fluid  drachm  =     3 '552  cubic  centimetres 

1  fluid  ounce    =  28*4123  ,, 

1  pint  =568-25  ,, 

1  quart  =     1-13649  litres  .         , 

1  gallon  =     4-5459631  litres 


Logarithms. 
1-214  4995 
1-452  0472 
1-883  4076 


2-770  8520 
0-550  4730 
1-4535064 
2-754  5394 
0-055  5656 
0-657  6260 


Cubic  Inches.  Cubic  Centimetres. 
1=  16-387 
2=  32774 
3=  49-161 
4=  65-548 
5=  81-935 
6=  98-322 

7  =  114709 

8  =  131-096 

9  =  147-483 


Fluid  Ounces.  Cubic  Centimetres. 
1=   28-4123 
2=  56-8246 
3=  85-2369 

4  =  113-6492 

5  =  142-0615 

6  =  170-4738 

7  =  198-8861 

8  =  227*2984 

9  =  255-7107 


Pints.    Litres. 

1  =  0-56825 

2  =  1-13650 

3  =  1-70475 

4  =  2-27300 

5  =  2-84125 

6  =  3-40950 

7  =  3-97775 

8  =  4-54600 

9  =  5-11425 


Gallons.    Litres. 
1=   4-54596 
2=   9-09192 

3  =  13-63788 

4  =  1818384 

5  =  22-72980 

6  =  27-27576 

7  =  31-82172 

8  =  36-36768 

9  =  40-91364 


Note. — The  following  measure,  though  not  recognized  officially,  is  much 
used  in  certain  trades  : — 1  barn  galW=17  pints  =  9 '6602  litres. 


60 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES— continued. 

Metric  into  Imperial. 

1  milligram  =  0 '01543  grain  .."..» 
1  centigram  =   0 '15 4 32  grain  .         .         .         .         . 

1  decigram  =   1  '54324  grains 

1  gram          =15 '43286  grains 

,,  =  Q'564383  dram  avoirdupois        .         . 

,,  =  0 '035274  ounce  avoirdupois 

,,  =  0*25721  drachm  (apothecaries)  . 

,,  =  0-0321507  ounce  troy        . 

1  kilogram  =15432 '3564  grains       .         .         •:"!'* 
„  =35'2740  ounces  avoirdupois 

,,  =  2-2046223  Ib 

,,  =  32 '15074  ounces  troy  . 

1  quintal  (100  kilog.)  =  l'968  cwt.   . 
1  tonne  (1000  kilog.)  =0-9842  ton  . 


Logarithms. 
2188  4324 
1-188  4324 
0'188  4324 
1-188  4324 
1751  5739 
2-547  4547 
1-4102878 
2'507  1905 
4-188  4324 
1-547  4547 
0-3433341 
1-507  1910 
0-294  0251 
1-993  0834 


Grams.  Grains. 
1=  15-43236: 
2=  30-86472: 
3=  46-29708: 
4=  6172944: 
5=  77-16180: 
6=  92-59416: 

7  =  108-02652: 

8  =  123-45888: 

9  =  138-89124: 


Oz.  (Av.). 
:  0-035274  = 
:  0-070548: 
=  0-1 05822: 

:0'141096: 

:  0-176370: 

rO'211644: 
:0  246918= 
:0'282192: 
:0'317466: 


Oz.  (Troy). 

:0'0321507 
0-0643014 
:  0-09(54521 
:  0-1286028 
:0'1607535 
:0*1929042 
: 0-2250549 
=0-2572056 
:  0-2893563 


Imperial  into  Metric. 

1  grain  =       0'0648  gram 

1  drachm  (apoth.)    =       3 '888  grams 
1  ounce  troy  =     31 '1035  grams 


1  dram  avoirdupois 
1  ounce  avoirdupois 
1  pound  (16  oz. ) 
1  stone  (14  Ib.) 
1  quarter  (28  Ib.) 
1  cwt.  (112  Ib.) 


1772  grams 
28'350  grams 
453-59243  grams 
6-350  kilogram- 
12-70  kilograms 
50-80  kilograms 

,,  =       Q'5080  quintal 

1  ton  (20  cwt.)         =1016-0  kilograms 


Kilograms.  Pounds. 
1=   2-20462 
2=   4-40924 
3=   6-61386 
4=   8-81848 

5  =  11-02310 

6  =  13-22772 

7  =  15-43234 

8  =  17-63696 

9  =  19-84158 


Logarithms. 
2-811  5750 
0-5897263 
1-4928093 

0-248  4637 
1-4525531 
2-656  6658 
0-802  7737 
1-103  8037 
1-705  8637 
1-705  8637 
3-0068937 


Grains.    Gram.  Ounces.  (Av.)  =  Grams. 

1=0-06480  1=   28-35 

2  =  0-12960  2=  5670 

3  =  0-19440  3=  85-05 

4  =  0-25920  4  =  113-40 

5  =  0-32399  5  =  141-75 

6  =  0-38879  6  =  170-10 

7  =  0-45359  7  =  198-45 

8  =  0-51839  8  =  226-80 

9  =  0-58319  9  =  255-15 

'     44  kilograms  =  97  pounds  within  0*004    Ib.  in  excess. 

303                   =668       ,,  ,,       0-0006  Ib. 


WEIGHTS    AND    MEASURES. 


61 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES— continued. 


Pounds  to  Kilograms. 

1  =  0-45359 

2  =  0-90718 

3  =  1-36077 

4  =  1-81436 

5  =  2-26795 

6  =  272154 

7  =  3-17513 

8  =  3-62872 

9  =  4-08231 


Hundredweights  to  Kilograms. 
1=  50-8 

2  =  101-6 

3  =  152-4 

4  =  203-2 

5  =  254-0 

6  =  304-8 

7  =  355-6 

8  =  406-4 

9  =  457-2 


Ex.  1.  How  many  c.c.  are  equivalent  to  84  cubic  inches?  From 
the  table  on  p.  59  8  cubic  inches  =  131'096  c.c.  and  4  cubic  inches 
=  65 -548  c.c. 

.'.  80  =  1310-96 
4=     65-548 

1376-508  c.c. 


Ex.  2.  How  many  grams  are  equivalent  to  39  ounces  (av.)  ? 

30  =  850-5 
9  =  255-15 


1105 '65  grams. 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  SIGNS  USED  IN  WRITING  MEDICAL 
PRESCRIPTIONS. 


1  grain  . 

•     igr. 

1    drachm 

1       ,»      • 

.     gr.  j,  or  gr.  i. 

H       „ 

14    „      - 

.     gr.  iss. 

2    drachms 

2    grains 

.     gr.  ii,  or  gr.  ij. 

3 

21      ,      • 

.     gr.  iiss. 

81        „ 

4        ,      . 

.     gr.  iv. 

71       „ 

8        ,      - 

.     gr.  viii,  or  gr.  viij. 

\  ounce 

\  sen  pie 

.       988. 

1        „ 

1         , 

•     9i,  or9j. 

11      „ 

11       , 

.     9  iss. 

ipint 

2    scruples 

.     9  ii,  or  9  ij. 

1      ,, 

62 


FOREIGN    WEIGHTS    AND    MONEY. 


FOREIGN  WEIGHTS  AND  THEIR  ENGLISH  EQUIVALENTS. 

The  Metric  System  is  compulsory  in  Austria,  Belgium,  France, 
Germany,  Greece,  Italy,  Luxemburg,  the  Netherlands,  Portugal, 
Rou mania,  Spain,  Switzerland,  Turkey,  and  most  of  the  South 
American  Republics ;  optional  in  Great  Britain,  the  United  States, 
and  Russia. 

1  quintal       =100     kg.  =  1 '968  cwts. 
1  metric  ton  =  1000  kg.  =  0-9842  ton. 

=  1  -1023  American  short  tons  (2000  Ib. ) 
Austria-Hungary  .         .         .     1  pfund      =        1'2346  Ib. 
Belgium        ....     1  livre        =        M02     ,, 

Egypt 1  can  tar      =      99 '045     „ 

Germany        ....     1  pfund       =    500  grams. 

Russia 1  pound      =        0'9028  Ib. 

1  pood  *  (40  pounds)  =  36'113  Ib. 

Sweden          ....     1  pound      =       0'9377  Ib. 
Switzerland  .  1  zollpfund  =  500  grams. 

China 1  tael  =        1'333  oz.  av. 

1  chin          =      16  tael  =  1-333     Ib. 

1  kin  (  =  160momme)  =1'3227    ,, 

1  kwan       =  8-2672  Ib. 
[1  koku  (  =  100  sho)=  39-674  gallons.] 


Japan 


FOREIGN  MONEYS  AND  THEIR  ENGLISH  EQUIVALENTS 
(IN  1912). 


Austria-Hungary 

China 

Denmark,  Norway  and 

Sweden    . 
Egypt 
France 
Germany     . 
Holland      . 
India  . 
Italy  . 
Japan . 
Mexico 

Russia         .  * 
Spain 
Turkey 
United  States 


1  krone  (  =  100  heller) 

1  silver  yuan  or  dollar  (  =  100  cents) 


1  krone  (  =  100  ore) 
£E1  (  =  100  piastres)    . 
1  franc  (  =  100  centimes) 
1  mark  (  =  100  pfennige) 
1  florin  (  =  100  cents)  . 
1  rupee  ( =  16  annas)    . 
1  lira  (  =  100  centesimi) 
1  yen  (  =  100  sen) 
1  peso  (  =  100  centavos) 
1  rouble  (100  kopecks) 
1  peseta  (  =  100  centimos) 
£T1  (  =  100  piastres)    . 
1  dollar  (  =  100  cents)  . 


s. 

d. 

.      0 

10 

its)     .       2 

0 

1 

H 

.     20 

3| 

.       0 

9i 

.       0 

HI 

1 

8 

.     1 

4 

.       0 

»i 

,       2 

o* 

2 

of 

.       2 

n 

.       0 

04 

.     18 

0 

.       4 

H 

*  63  poods  =  2275  lb.  =  l  English  ton  nearly. 


DENSITIES    OP    COMMON    SUBSTANCES. 


63 


DENSITIES  OF  COMMONLY  OCCURRING  SUBSTANCES  (AT  15°  C.] 


Agate 

.     2-6 

Graphite     . 

.     2'2 

Aluminium 

.     27 

Gutta-percha 

.     0-97 

Aluminium  bronze 

.     8 

Gypsum      . 

.     2-3 

Amber 

.     11 

Heavy  spar         .         . 

.     4-5 

Amphibole 

2-9-3-4 

Haematite  .         .         . 

.     5 

Anhydrite 

.     2-98 

Iceland  Spar       .         . 

.     2-7 

Anthracite 

1-27-1-75 

India-rubber 

;.    0-99 

Antimony            «. 

.     67 

Iodine         .         .         . 

.     5 

Apatite      .         .        . 

.     3-3 

Iron  (cast)  . 

7-2-7-5 

Arragonite 

.     3 

„    (wrought)   . 

.     7-8 

Arsenic 

.     5-7 

Ivory         ..         .         . 

.     1-92 

Bamboo 

,     0-4 

Lead  .         .         .    _    . 

.   11-4 

Basalt 

.     2-8 

3'2 

Beech-  wood 

0-69-  -8 

Lithium     .         . 

.     0-59 

Beeswax     .         .         . 

.     0-96 

Magnesium 

.     174 

Bismuth     . 

.     9-8 

Mahogany  . 

•56--S5 

Bitumen     .         , 

0-8-1-2 

Marble 

.     27 

Box-  wood  .         »       ... 

>     0-96 

Mercury     . 

.  13-6 

Bone  .         .        . 

1-8-2 

Mica  .         . 

2-7-3-1 

Brass 

.     8 

Milk  (cows') 

.     1  03 

Brick          ,        .         . 

.     2-1 

Nickel 

.     8-3 

Bromine     .         .         . 

.     3 

Oak  (English)     . 

.     0-93 

Bronze  coinage   .         . 
Cadmium   . 

.     8-66 
.   -86 

Phosphorus  (yellow) 
(red)       . 

.     1-84 

.     2-2 

Calamine   .         .         . 

.     3-4 

Pine-wood  . 

.     0-56 

Calc-spar    . 

.    27 

Platinum   .        . 

.  21-5 

Chalk  (mean) 

.     2-3 

Potassium  .         .        . 

.     0-88 

Charcoal     .         .         . 

.     1-5 

Pyrites  (iron)     . 

.     5 

Chloroform         .        . 

.     1-5 

Py  rolu  site  . 

.     4-9 

Chrome  alum      .         . 

.     1-83 

Pumice-stone      .         ». 

2-2-2-5 

Cinnabar    . 

.     8-1 

Sand  (dry) 

.     1  4 

Coal  .         .         .         . 

1-25-1-33 

Sea-water   . 

.     1-026 

Cobalt         .         .        . 

.     8-9 

Selenite      .         .      '  . 

.     2-3 

Copper 

.     8-9 

Serpentine.        ;     -  . 

.     2-6 

Cork  .... 

.     0-24 

Silver 

.  10  5 

Diamond    ... 

.     3-5 

,,     coinage  (British)  10-35-10-38* 

Dolomite    .         .        . 

.     2-9 

Slate  .... 

2-1-2-8 

Ebony         .     '    .         . 

.     1-2 

Sodium 

,     0-97 

Elm  (dry)  . 

,     0-59 

Spermaceti 

.     0-94 

Emery        .         .        . 

.     4 

Strontianite 

.     3-6 

Felspar       .         .         . 

2-4-2-6 

Sugar  (cane) 

.     1-6 

Fir  (Riga)—  dry  . 

.    075 

Sulphur 

.     2-07 

Fluor-spar. 

.     3-2 

Talc  .... 

.     2-5 

Galena 

.     7'6 

Teak  (Indian)     . 

.     0-66 

Glass  (crown) 

.     2-5 

Tin    .... 

7-24-7-3 

„     (flint) 

2-9-3-25 

Tinstone     . 

.     6-9 

,,     (Bohemian) 

.     2'4 

Turpentine 

.     0-87 

Glycerine   . 

.     1-26 

Willow-wood 

.     0-4 

Gold  .... 

19-3 

Witherite 

4*3 

„    (18  carat)    . 

.  14-88 

Wool          .         .        ! 

.     1-6 

,,    coinage  (British) 

.  17-48* 

Zinc  .... 

6-9-7-2 

Granite 

.     27 

Zinc  blende 

,     4-16 

*  These  values  were  kindly  supplied 
the  Royal  Mint. 

to  the  author  by  Dr.  T.  K.  Rose,  Chemist  to 

64 


FREEZING    MIXTURES. 


TABLE  OF  FREEZING  MIXTURES. 


A  mixture  of  (parts  by  weight). 

Temperature 
produced. 

Snow  or  broken  ice,  2  ;  common  salt,  1        .         .         . 
,,               ,,          3  ;  calcium  chloride  (cryst.)  4       . 
Sodium  sulphate  (cryst.),  8  ;  muriatic  acid,  5 
,,       phosphate  (cryst.),  9  ;  nitric  acid,  4         .         . 
Ammonium  nitrate,  1  ;  water,  1           .... 
Ammonium    chloride,    5  ;       saltpetre,     5  ;      sodium 
sulphate,  8  ;  water,  16     

-WO. 

-48°C. 

-29°C.' 
-  16°  C. 

-20°C. 

Note.— The  solids  used  should  be  finely  powdered. 


TABLE  FOR  THE  CONVERSION  OF  PERCENTAGE  INTO 
CWTS.,  QRS.,  AND  LB.  PER  TON,  AND  INTO  QRS.  AND  LB.  PER  GWT. 


Per 

cent. 

Per  ton. 

Per  cwt. 

Per 
cent. 

Per  ton. 

Per  cwt. 

cwt. 

qrs. 

Ib. 

qrs. 

Ib. 

cwt. 

qrs. 

Ib. 

qrs. 

Ib. 

1 

mt 

22-4 

1-12 

29 

5 

3 

6-6 

1 

4-48 

2 

*i 

16-8 

2-24 

30 

6 

1 

5'GO 

3 

.. 

2 

11-2 

3-36 

31 

6 

22-4 

1 

6-72 

4 

3 

5'6 

4-48 

32 

6 

1 

16-8 

1 

7-84 

5 

*i 

M 

5-60 

33 

6 

2 

11-2 

1 

8-96 

6 

i 

22:4 

6-72 

34 

6 

3 

5-6 

1 

10-08 

7 

i 

1 

16-8 

7-84 

35 

7 

1 

11-20 

8 

i 

2 

11-2 

8-96 

36 

7 

22-4 

1 

12-32 

9 

i 

3 

5-6 

10-08 

37 

7 

1 

16-8 

1 

13-44 

10 

2 

tm 

11-20 

38 

7 

2 

11-2 

1 

14-56 

11 

2 

22-4 

12-32 

39 

7 

3 

5-6 

1 

15-68 

12 

2 

'{ 

16-8 

13-44 

40 

8 

1 

16-8 

13 

2 

2 

11-2 

14-56 

41 

8 

22*-4 

1 

17-92 

14 

2 

3 

5'6 

15-C8 

42 

8 

i 

16-8 

1 

19-04 

15 

3 

16-8 

43 

8 

2 

11-2 

1 

20-16 

16 

3 

22:4 

17-92 

44 

8 

3 

5-6 

1 

21-28 

17 

3 

'i 

16-8 

19-04 

45 

9 

„ 

1 

22-40 

18 

3 

2 

11-2 

20-16 

46 

9 

22:4 

1 

23-52 

19 

3 

3 

5-6 

21-28 

47 

9 

1 

16-8 

1 

24-64 

20 

4 

2'2'40 

48 

9 

2 

11-2 

1 

25-76 

21 

4 

22:4 

23-52 

49 

9 

3 

5-6 

1 

26-88 

22 

4 

'i 

16-8 

24-64 

50 

10 

2 

23 

4 

I 

11-2 

2576 

51 

10 

22:4 

2 

1-12 

24 

4 

3 

5-6 

26-88 

52 

10 

'i 

16-8 

2 

2-24 

25 

5 

>> 

1 

53 

10 

2 

11-2 

2 

336 

26 

5 

22:4 

1 

1-12 

54 

10 

3 

5-6 

2 

4-48 

27 

5 

1 

16-8 

1 

2-24 

55 

11 

2 

5-60 

28 

5 

2 

11-2 

1 

3-36 

56 

11 

•• 

22:4 

2 

6-72 

Per  cent. 

•1 

•2 

•3 

Ib.  per  cwt. 

•112 

•2-24 

•33C 

Ib.  per  ton 

2-24 

4-48 

6-72 

•4 

•5 

•6 

•7 

•8 

•9 

•448 

•56 

•672 

•784 

•896 

1-005 

896 

11-2 

13-44 

15-68 

17-92 

20-16 

1 

PERCENTAGES    INTO    CWTS.,    ETC.,    PER    TON. 


65 


TABLE  FOR  THE  CONVERSION  OF  PERCENTAGE  INTO  CWTS.,  QRS.,  AND 

LB.    PER  TON,    AND   INTO    QRS.    AND   LB.    PER   CWT. — Continued. 


Per 

cent. 

Per  ton. 

Per  cwt. 

Per 

cent. 

Per  ton. 

Per  cwt. 

cwt. 

qrs. 

lb. 

qrs. 

lb. 

cwt. 

qrs. 

lb. 

qrs. 

lb. 

57 

11 

1 

168 

2 

7-134 

79 

15 

3 

5-6 

3 

4-48 

68 

11 

2 

11'2 

2 

8-96 

80 

16 

3 

5-60 

59 

11 

3 

5'6 

2 

10-08 

81 

16 

22:4 

3 

6-72 

60 

12 

2 

11-20 

82 

16 

'i 

16'8 

3 

7-84 

61 

12 

22:4 

2 

12-32 

83 

16 

2 

11-2 

3 

8-96 

62 

12 

'i 

16  '8 

2 

13-44 

84 

16 

3 

5-6 

3 

10-08 

63 

12 

2 

11-2 

2 

14-56 

85 

17 

3 

11-20 

64 

12 

3 

5-6 

2 

15-68 

86 

17 

22:4 

3 

12-32 

65 

13 

2 

16-8 

87 

17 

*i 

16-8 

3 

13-44 

66 

13 

22:4 

2 

17-92 

88 

17 

2 

11-2 

3 

14-56 

67 

13 

1 

16-8 

2 

19-04 

89 

17 

3 

5-6 

3 

15-68 

68 

13 

2 

11-2 

2 

2016 

90 

18 

3 

16-8 

69 

13 

3 

5-6 

2 

21-28 

91 

18 

22:4 

3 

17-92 

70 

14 

2 

22-40 

92 

18 

'i 

16-8 

3 

19-04 

71 

14 

22:4 

2 

23-52 

93 

18 

2 

11-2 

3 

2016 

72 

14 

'i 

16-8 

2 

24  -64 

94 

18 

3' 

5-6 

3 

21-28 

73 

14 

2 

11-2 

2 

25-76 

95 

19 

3 

22-40 

74 

14 

3 

5-6 

2 

26-88 

96 

19 

22:4 

3 

23-52 

75 

15 

3 

97 

19 

'i 

16-8 

3 

24-64 

76 

15 

22-4 

3 

1-12 

98 

19 

2 

11-2 

3 

25-76 

77 

15 

i 

16-8 

3 

2-24 

99 

19 

3 

5-6 

3 

26-88 

78 

15 

2 

11-2 

3 

3'36 

100 

20 

•• 

•• 

4 

•• 

Per  cent. 

•1 

•2 

•3 

•4 

•5 

•6 

•7 

•8 

•9 

lb.  per  cwt. 

•112 

•224 

•336 

•448 

•56 

•672 

•784 

•896 

1-008 

lb.  per  ton 

2-24 

4-48 

6-72 

8-96 

11-2 

13-44 

15-68 

17-92 

20-16 

TABLE  FOR  THE  CONVERSION  OF  DRAMS  PER  LB.  INTO 
PERCENTAGE  AND  INTO  LB.  PER  TON. 


Drams 
per  lb.  (av.) 

Per  cent. 

Lb.  per  ton 
(.2240  lb.). 

Drams 
per  lb.  (av.) 

Per  cent. 

Lb.  per  ton 
(2240  lb.). 

i 

0-097656 

2-187494 

3|- 

1-465 

32-81 

(or  0-1  nearly) 

4 

1-562 

35-00 

i 

•195 

4-37 

41 

1-660 

37-19 

1 

•293 

6-56 

3 

1-758 

39-38 

1 

•390625  * 

8-75  t 

4| 

1-855 

41-56 

H 

•488 

10-94 

5 

1-953 

43-75 

ij 

•586 

13-12 

10 

3-906 

87-50 

if 

•683 

15-31 

15 

5-859 

131-25 

2 

•781 

17-50 

20 

7-812 

175-00 

2J 

•879 

19-68 

25 

9765 

218-75 

2£ 

•976 

21-87 

30 

11-719 

262-50 

2J 

1-074 

24-06 

35 

13-672 

306-25 

3 

1-172 

26-25 

40 

15625 

350-00 

11 

1-269 
1-367 

28-43 
30-62 

45 

50 

17-578 
19-531 

393-75 
437-50 

Log.  1-59176, 


f  Log.  0-94200. 


66 


THE    BAROMETER. 


THE  BAROMETER. 
I.   Inches  into  Millimetres. 


Inches. 

Milli- 
metres. 

Inches. 

Milli- 
metres. 

Inches. 

Milli- 
metres. 

Inches. 

Milli- 
metres. 

27-5 

698-49 

28-4 

721-35 

29-3 

744-21 

30-2 

767-07 

•6 

701-03 

•5 

723-89 

•4 

746-75 

•3 

769-61 

•7 

703-57 

•6 

726-43 

•5 

749-29 

•4 

772-15 

•8 

706-11 

•7 

728-97 

•6 

751-83 

•5 

774-69 

•9 

708-65 

•8 

731-51 

•7 

754-37 

•6 

777-23 

28-0 

711-19 

•9 

734-05 

•8 

756-91 

•7 

77977 

•1 

71373 

29-0 

736-59 

•9 

759-45 

•8 

782-31 

•2 

716-27 

•1 

739-13 

30  0 

761-99 

•9 

784-85 

•3 

718-81 

•2 

741-67 

•1 

764-53 

Inches.                   '01 

•02    -03 

•04       -05       -06 

.-07       -08       -09 

Millimetres,           '25 

•51    -76 

1-02    1-27    1-52 

1-78    2-03    2-29 

II.  Millimetres  into  Inches. 


Mm. 

Inches. 

Mm. 

Inches. 

Mm. 

Inches. 

Mm. 

Inches. 

Mm. 

Inches. 

700 

27-56 

718 

28-27 

735 

28-94 

752 

29-61 

769 

30-28 

701 

•60 

719 

•31 

736 

•98 

753 

•65 

770 

•32 

702 

•64 

720 

•35 

737 

29-02 

754 

•69 

771 

•36 

703 

•68 

721 

•39 

738 

•06 

755 

•73 

772 

•39 

704 

•72 

722 

•43 

739 

•10 

756 

•76 

773 

•43 

705 

•76 

723 

•47 

740 

•13 

757 

•80 

774 

•47 

706 

•80 

724 

•50 

741 

•17 

758 

•84 

775 

•51 

707 

•84 

725 

•54 

742 

•21 

759 

•88 

776 

•55 

708 

•88 

726 

•68 

743 

•25 

760 

•92 

777 

•59 

709 

•91 

727 

•62 

744 

•29 

761 

•96 

778 

•63 

710 

•95 

728 

•66 

745 

•33 

762 

30-00 

779 

•67 

711 

•99 

729 

•70 

746 

•37 

763 

•04 

780 

•71 

712 

28-03 

730 

•74 

747 

•41 

764 

•08 

781 

•75 

713 

•07 

731 

•78 

748 

•45 

765 

•12 

782 

•79 

714 

•11 

732 

•82 

749 

•49 

766 

•16 

783 

•83 

715 

•15 

733 

•86 

750 

•53 

707 

•20 

784 

•87 

716 

•19 

734 

•90 

751 

•57 

768 

•24 

785 

•91 

717 

•23 

CORRECTION    OF    GASEOUS    VOLUMES. 


67 


TABLE  FOR  CORRECTION  OF  VOLUMES  OF  GASES  FOR  TEMPERATURE, 
GIVING  THE  DIVISOR  FOR  THE  FORMULA. 


V1- 


V  x  B 


760  x  (1  +  M) 


5= '003665 


t 

760  X 

(i+tt). 

Log.  [760  x 

t 

760  x 

Log.  [760  x 
(1+80]- 

o-o' 

760-0000 

2-8808136 

4-0 

771-1416 

2-8871341 

•1 

760-2785 

9727 

•1 

771-4201 

2909 

"2 

760-5571 

2-8811318 

•2 

771-6987 

4477 

•3 

760-8356 

2908 

•3 

771-9772 

6045 

•4 

761-1142 

4498 

•4 

772-2558 

7612 

0-5 

761-3927 

6087 

4-5 

772-5343 

9178 

•6 

761-6712 

7675 

•6 

772-8128 

2-8880743 

•7 

761-9498 

9263 

•7 

773-0914 

2308 

•8 

762-2283 

2-8820850 

•8 

773-3699 

3872 

•9 

762-5069 

2437 

•9 

773-6485 

5436 

1-0 

762-7854 

2-8824024 

5-0 

773-9270 

2-8887000 

•1 

763-0639 

5610 

•1 

774-2055 

8563 

•2 

763-3425 

7195 

•2 

774-4841 

2-8890125 

•3 

763-6210 

8779 

•3 

774-7626 

1687 

•4 

763-8996 

2-8830363 

•4 

775-0412 

3248 

1-5 

764-1781 

1946 

5'5 

775-3197 

4808 

•6 

764-4566 

3528 

•6 

775-5982 

6368 

•7 

764-7352 

5111 

•7 

775-8768 

7927 

•8 

765-0137 

6692 

•8 

7761553 

9486 

•9 

765-2923 

8273 

•9 

776-4339 

2-8901044 

2-0 

765-5708 

2-8839854 

6-0 

7767124 

2-8902602 

•1 

765-8493 

2-8841434 

•1 

776-9909 

4159 

•2 

766-1279 

3013 

•2 

777-2695 

5716 

•3 

766-4064 

4591 

•3 

777-5480 

7272 

•4 

766-6850 

6169 

•4 

777-8266 

8828 

2-5 

766-9635 

7747 

6-5 

778-1051 

2-8910383 

•6 

767-2420 

2-8849324 

•6 

778-3836 

1938 

•7 

767-5206 

2-8850901 

•7 

778-6622 

3492 

•8 

767-7991 

2477 

•8 

778-9407 

5045 

•9 

768-0777 

4052 

•9 

779-2193 

6597 

3-0 

768-3562 

2-8855626 

7-0 

779-4978 

2-8918149 

•1 

768-6347 

7199 

•1 

7797763 

9701 

•2 

768-9133 

8772 

•2 

780-0549 

2-8921252 

•3 

769-1918 

2-8860345 

•3 

780-3334 

2802 

•4 

769-4704 

1918 

•4 

780-6120 

4352 

3-5 

769-7489 

3490 

7-5 

780-8905 

5901 

•6 

770-0274 

5062 

•6 

781-1690 

7450 

•7 

770-3060 

6633 

•7 

781-4476 

8998 

•8 

770-5845 

8203 

•8 

7817261 

2-8930546 

9 

770-8631 

9772 

•9 

782-0047 

2093 

68  CORRECTION   OF   GASEOUS    VOLUMES. 

TABLE  FOR  CORRECTION  OF  VOLUMES  OF  GASES — continued. 


t 

760  X 

Log.  [760  x 
(!+&)]• 

t 

760  x 

Log.  [760  x 
(l+fiOl- 

8'0 

782-2832 

2-8933640 

12-5 

794-8175 

2-9002674 

•1 

782-5617 

5186 

•6 

795-0960 

4196 

•2 

782-8403 

6732 

•7 

795-3746 

5717 

•3 

783-1188 

8277 

•8 

795-6531 

7238 

•4 

783-3974 

9821 

•9 

795-9317 

8758 

8-5 

783-6959 

2-8941365 

13-0 

796-2102 

2-9010277 

•6 

783-9544 

2908 

•1 

796-4887 

1796 

•7 

784-2330 

4451 

"2 

796-7673 

3315 

•8 

784-5115 

5993 

•3 

797-0458 

4833 

•9 

784-7901 

7535 

•4 

797-3244 

6350 

9-0 

785-0686 

2-8949076 

13-5 

797-6029 

7867 

•1 

785-3471 

2-8950617 

•6 

797-8814 

9384 

•2 

785-6257 

2157 

7 

798-1600 

2-9020900 

•3 

785-9042 

3697 

•8 

798-4385 

2415 

•4 

786-1828 

5236 

•9 

798-7171 

3930 

9'5 

786-4613 

6774 

14-0 

798-9956 

2-9025444 

•6 

786-7398 

8311 

•1 

799-2741 

6957 

•7 

787-0184 

9848 

•2 

799-5527 

8470 

•8 

787-2969 

2-8961385 

•3 

799-8312 

9983 

•9 

787-5755 

2921 

•4 

800-1098 

2-9031495 

10-0 

787-8540 

2-8964457 

14-5 

800-3883 

2-9033007 

•1 

788-1325 

5993 

•6 

800-6668 

4518 

•2 

788-4111 

7528 

•7 

800-9454 

6029 

•3 

788-6896 

9062 

•8 

801-2239 

7539 

•4 

788-9682 

2-8970595 

•9 

801-5025 

9049 

10-5 

789-2467 

2128 

15-0 

801-7810 

2-9040558 

•6 

789-5252 

3660 

•1 

802-0595 

2066 

7 

789-8038 

5192 

•2 

802-3381 

3574 

•8 

790-0823 

6723 

•3 

802-6166 

5081 

•9 

790-3609 

8254 

•4 

802-8952 

6588 

11-0 

790-6394 

2-8979784 

15-5 

803-1737 

8095 

•1 

790-9179 

2-8981314 

•6 

803-4522 

9601 

•2 

791-1965 

2843 

•7 

8037308 

2-9051106 

•3 

791-4750 

4372 

•8 

804-0093 

2611 

•4 

7917536 

2-8985900 

•9 

804-2879 

4115 

11-5 

792-0321 

7428 

16-0 

804-5664 

2-9055619 

•6 

792-3106 

8955 

•1 

804-8449 

7122 

7 

792-5892 

2-8990482 

•2 

805-1235 

8625 

•8 

792-8677 

2008 

•3 

805-4020 

2-9060127 

•9 

793-1463 

3533 

•4 

805-6806 

1628 

12-0 

793-4248 

2-8995058 

16-5 

805-9591 

2-9063129 

•1 

793-7033 

6582 

•6 

806-2376 

4630 

•2 

793-9819 

8106 

•7 

806-5162 

6130 

•3 

794-2604 

9629 

•8 

8067947 

7630 

•4 

794-5390 

2-9001152 

•9 

807-0733 

9129 

CORRECTION    OF    GASEOUS    VOLUMES.  69 

TABLE  FOR  CORRECTION  OF  VOLUMES  OF  GASES— continued. 


t 

760  x 
(1+50- 

Log.  [760  x 
(1+60]- 

1 

760  X 
(1+60- 

Log.  [760  x 
(1+601- 

17-6 

807-3518 

2-9070628 

21-5 

819-8861 

2-9137535 

•1 

807-6303 

2126 

•6 

820-1646 

9010 

•2 

807-9089 

3624 

•7 

820-4432 

2-9140485 

•3 

808-1874 

5121 

•8 

820-7217 

1960 

•4 

808-4660 

6618 

•9 

821-0003 

3434 

17-5 

8087445 

8114 

22-0 

821-2788 

2-9144907 

•6 

809-0230 

2-9079609 

•1 

821-5573 

6380 

•7 

809-3016 

2-9081104 

•2 

821  -8859 

7852 

•8 

809-5801 

2598 

•3 

822-1144 

9323 

•9 

809-8587 

4092 

•4 

822-3930 

2-9150794 

18-0 

810-1372 

2-9085586 

22-5 

822-6715 

2265 

•1 

810-4175 

7079 

•6 

822-9500 

3735 

•2 

810-6943 

8571 

•7 

823-2286 

5205 

•3 

810-9728 

2-9090063 

•8 

823-5071 

6674 

•4 

811-2514 

1554 

•9 

823-7857 

8143 

18-5 

811-5299 

3045 

23-0 

824-0642 

2-9159611 

•6 

811-8084 

4535 

•1 

824-3427 

2-9161079 

•7 

812-0870 

6025 

•2 

824-6213 

2546 

•8 

812-3655 

7515 

•3 

824-8998 

4013 

•9 

812-6441 

9004 

•4 

825-1784 

5479 

19-0 

812-9226 

2-9100492 

23-5 

825-4569 

6945 

•1 

813-2011 

1980 

•6 

8257354 

8410 

•2 

813-4797 

3467 

•7 

826-0140 

9875 

•3 

813-7582 

4954 

•8 

826  2925 

2-9171339 

•4 

814-0368 

6440 

•9 

826-5711 

2802 

19-5 

814-3153 

7926 

24-0 

826-8496 

2-9174265 

•6 

814-5938 

9411 

•1 

827-1281 

5728 

•7 

814-8724 

2-9110896 

•2 

827-4067 

7190 

•8 

815-1500 

2380 

•3 

827-6852 

8652 

•9 

815-4925 

3864 

•4 

827-9638 

2-9180114 

20-0 

815-7080 

2-9115347 

24-5 

828-2423 

1575 

•1 

815-9865 

6830 

•6 

828-5208 

3035 

•2 

816-2651 

8312 

•7 

8287994 

4495 

•3 

816-5436 

9794 

•8 

829-0779 

5954 

•4 

816-8222 

2-9121275 

•9 

829-3565 

7412 

20-5 

817-1007 

2756 

25-0 

829-6350 

2-9188870 

•6 

817-3792 

4236 

•1 

829-9135 

2-9190328 

•7 

817-6578 

2-9125716 

•2 

830-1921 

1785 

•8 

817-9363 

7195 

•3 

830-4706 

3242 

•9 

818-2149 

8674 

•4 

8307492 

4699 

21-0 

818-4934 

2-9130152 

25'5 

831-0277 

2-9196155 

•1 

8187719 

1630 

•6 

831-3062 

7610 

•2 

819-0505 

3107 

•7 

831-5848 

9065 

•3 

819-3290 

4583 

•8 

831-8633 

2-9200520 

•4 

819-6076 

6059 

•9 

831-1419 

1974 

70 


TENSION    OF   MERCURY-VAPOUR. 


TABLE  FOR  CORRECTION  OF  VOLUMES  OF  GASES— continued. 


1 

760  x 
(1+SO- 

Log.  [760  X 

d+501. 

t 

7COx 
(1+60- 

Log.  [7GOX 
(1+501- 

26-6 

832-4204 

2-9203427 

28  -i 

838-2697 

2-9233838 

•1 

832-6989 

4880 

•2 

838-5483 

5281 

•2 

832-9775 

6333 

•3 

838-8268 

6723 

•3 

833-2560 

7785 

•4 

839-1054 

8165 

•4 

833-5346 

9237 

28-5 

839-3839 

2-9239606 

26-5 

833-8131 

2-9210688 

•6 

839-6624 

2-9241047 

•6 

834-0916 

2139 

•7 

839-9410 

2488 

•7 

834-3702 

3589 

•8 

840-2195 

3928 

•8 

834-6487 

5038 

•9 

840-4981 

5363 

•9 

834-9273 

6487 

29-0 

840-7766 

2-9246307 

27-0 

835-2058 

2-9217936 

•1 

841-0551 

8246 

•1 

835-4843 

9384 

•2 

841-3337 

9684 

•2 

8357629 

2-9220832 

•3 

841-6122 

2-9251122 

•3 

836-0414 

2279 

•4 

841-8908 

2559 

•4 

836-3200 

3725 

29-5 

842-1693 

3995 

27-5 

836-5985 

5171 

•6 

842-4478 

5431 

•6 

836-8770 

6617 

•7 

8427264 

6866 

•7 

8371556 

8062 

•8 

843-0049 

8301 

•8 

837-4341 

9507 

•9 

843-2835 

9736 

•9 

837-7127 

2-9230951 

30-0 

843-5620 

2-9261171 

28-0 

837-9912 

2-9232395 

TENSION  OF  MERCURY  VAPOUR  (Ramsay  and  Young). 


°c. 

mm. 

°C. 

mm. 

'C 

mm. 

50 

0-015 

190 

12-14 

290 

198-98 

100 

0-27 

200 

17-02 

300 

246-70 

110 

0-45 

210 

23-48 

310 

30479 

120 

0-72 

220 

31-96 

320 

373-53 

130 

1-14 

230 

42-92 

330 

454-28 

140 

1-76 

240 

56-92 

340 

54672 

150 

2-68 

250 

74-59 

350 

658-52 

160 

4-01 

260 

96  66 

360 

785-11 

170 

5-90 

270 

123-91 

180 

8-54 

280 

157*38 

DENSITY    OP    WATER. 


71 


VOLUME  AND  DENSITY  OF  WATKR  AT  DIFFERENT  TEMPERATURES.* 


Temp. 

Sp.  gr.  of  Water 
(atO°  =  l). 

Vol.  of  Water 
(atO°=l). 

Sp.  gr.  of  Water 
(at  4°-=!). 

Vol.  of  Water 
(at4°  =  l). 

0° 

1-000000 

i-oooooo 

•999871 

1-000129 

1 

1  '000057 

0-999943 

•999928 

1-000072 

2 

1-000098 

•999902 

•999969 

1-000031 

3 

1-000120 

•999880 

•999991 

1-000009 

4 

1-000129 

•999871 

1-000000 

1-000000 

5 

1-000119 

•999881 

0-999990 

1-000010 

6 

1-000099 

•999901 

•999970 

1  -000030 

7 

1-000062 

•999938 

•999933 

1-000067 

8 

1-000015 

•999985 

•999886 

1-000114 

9 

0-999953 

1-000047 

•999824 

1-000176 

10 

•999876 

1-000124 

•999747 

1-000253 

11 

•999784 

1-000216 

•999655 

1-000345 

12 

•999678 

1-000322 

•999549 

1-000451 

13 

•999559 

1-000441 

•999430 

1-000570 

14 

•999429 

1-000572 

•999299 

1-000701 

15 

•999289 

1-000712 

•999160 

T000841 

16 

•999131 

1  -000870 

•999002 

1-000999 

17 

•998970 

1-001031 

•998841 

1-001160 

18 

•998782 

1-001219 

•998654 

1-001348 

19 

•998588 

1-001413 

•998460 

1-001542 

20 

•998388 

1-001615 

•998259 

1-001744 

21 

•998176 

1-001828 

•998047 

1-001957 

22 

•997953 

1-002049 

•997826 

1-002177 

23 

•997730 

1-002276 

•997601 

1  -002405 

24 

•997495 

1-002511 

•997367 

1-002641 

25 

•997249 

1-002759 

•997120 

1  '002888 

26 

•996994 

1-003014 

•996866 

1-003144 

27 

•996732 

1  -003278 

•996603 

1-003408 

28 

•996460 

1-003553 

•996331 

1-003682 

29 

996179 

1-003835 

•996051 

1-003965 

30 

•995894 

1-004123 

•995765 

1-004253 

35 

0-99431 

1-00572 

0-99418 

1  -00593 

40 

0-99248 

1-00757 

0-99235 

1-00773 

45 

0-99050 

1-00958 

0-99037 

1-00974 

50 

0-98832 

1-01182 

0-98819 

1-01201 

55 

0-98594 

1-01426 

0-98581 

1-01442 

60 

0-98350 

1-01678 

0-98338 

1-01697 

65 

0-98086 

1-01951 

0-98074 

1-01971 

70 

0-97807 

1  '02243 

0-97794 

1-02260 

75 

0-97511 

1-02553 

0-97498 

1-02569 

80 

0-97206 

1-02874 

0-97194 

1-02890 

85 

0-96892 

1-03207 

0-96879 

1-03224 

90 

0-96568 

1-03554 

0-96556 

1-03574 

95 

0-96231 

1-03918 

0-96219 

1-03938 

100 

0-95879 

1-04299 

0-95866 

1-04315 

This  table  may  be  utilized  to  reduce  a  sp.  gr.  taken  with  reference  to  water  at  one 
temperature  to  water  at  4°  C.  Thus,  let  S15  be  the  sp.  gr.  of  a  substance  referred 
to  water  at  15°  C.  as  unity,  then  the  sp.  gr.  (84)  referred  to  water  at  4°  as  unity 
will  be  S4=S15x  '99916 =S15(1  -  -00084).  *  Rosetti. 


72 


BAUME'S  HYDROMETER. 


BAUME'S  HYDROMETER. — Table  for  Liquids  heavier  than  Water.* 


•B. 

•Tw. 

Sp.  gr. 

•B. 

•Tw. 

Sp.  gr. 

°B. 

•Tw. 

Sp.  gr. 

1 

1-4 

1-007 

23 

38 

1-190 

45 

90-6 

1-453 

2 

2-8 

1-014 

24 

40 

1-200 

46 

93'6 

1-468 

3 

4-4 

1-022 

25 

42 

1-210 

47 

96-6 

1-483 

4 

5-8 

1-029 

26 

44 

1-220 

48 

99-6 

1-498 

5 

7'4 

1-037 

27 

46-2 

1-231 

49 

103 

1-515 

6 

9 

1-045 

28 

48-2 

1-241 

60 

106 

1  '.o30 

7 

10-2 

1-052 

29 

50-4 

1-252 

51 

109-2 

1-546 

8 

12 

1-060 

30 

52-6 

1-263 

52 

112-6 

1-563 

9 

13'4 

1-067 

31 

54-8 

1-274 

53 

116 

1-580 

10 

15 

1-075 

32 

57 

1-285 

54 

119-4 

1-597 

11 

16-6 

1-083 

33 

59-4 

1-297 

55 

123 

1-615 

12 

18-2 

1-091 

34 

61-6 

1-308 

56 

127 

1  -635 

13 

20 

1-100 

35 

64 

1  -320 

57 

130-4 

1-652 

14 

21-6 

1-108 

36 

66'4 

1-332 

58 

134-2 

1-671 

15 

23-2 

•116 

37 

69 

1-345 

59 

138-2 

1-691 

16 

25 

•125 

38 

71-4 

1-357 

60 

142 

1-710 

17 

26*8 

•134 

39 

74 

1-370 

61 

146-4 

1-732 

18 

28'4 

•142 

40 

76-6 

1-383 

62 

150-6 

1-753 

19 

30-4 

•152 

41 

79-4 

1-397 

63 

155 

1-775 

20 

32-4 

•162 

42 

82 

1-410 

64 

159 

1-795 

21 

34'2 

•171 

43 

84-8 

1-424 

65 

164 

1-820 

22 

36 

•180 

44 

87'6 

1-438 

66 

168-4 

1-842 

*  This  is  the  Baume"s  hydrometer  mostly  used  on  the  Continent  of  Europe:  but  othar 
scales  are  In  use  there  as  well,  and  quite  another  scale  for  Baume^s  hydrometer  is  used 
in  America  (Lunge  &  Hurter,  Alkali  Makers'  Handbook). 

Table  for  Liquids  lighter  than  Water. 


•B. 

Sp.gr. 

°B. 

Sp.  gr. 

°B. 

Sp.  gr. 

10 

i-ooo 

27 

0-896 

44 

0-811 

11 

0-993 

28 

0-890 

45 

0-807 

12 

0-986 

29 

0-885 

46 

0-802 

13 

0-980 

30 

0-880 

47 

0-798 

14 

0-973 

31 

0-874 

48 

0794 

15 

0-967 

32 

0-869 

49 

0-789 

16 

0-960 

33 

0-864 

50 

6785 

17 

0-954 

34 

0-859 

51 

0-781 

18 

0-948 

35 

0-854 

52 

0777 

19 

0-942 

36 

0-849 

53 

0773 

20 

0-936 

37 

0-844 

54 

0-768 

21 

0-930 

38 

0-839 

55 

0764 

22 

0-924 

39 

0-834 

56 

0760 

23 

0-918 

40 

0-830      . 

57 

0-757 

24 

0-913 

41 

0-825 

58 

0-753 

25 

0-907 

42 

0-820     . 

59 

0749 

26 

0-901 

43 

0-816 

60 

0-745 

Twaddelfs  Hydrometer. — To  convert  degrees  Twaddell  into  specific  gravity  (water = 
100(i):  multiply  the  numbt-r  by  5,  and  add  1000  to  the  product. 

To  rt-duce  specific  gravity  (water =1000)  to  Twaddell:  deduct  1000,  and  divide  the 
remainder  by  5 


SPECIFIC    GRAVITY    OF    HYDROCHLORIC    ACID. 


73 


TABLTI  SHOWING  THE  STRENGTH  or  HYDROCHLORIC  ACID 
OF  DIFFERENT  DENSITIES.     (Lunge  and  Marchlewski.*) 


Sp.  gr. 
at 

15°C/4°. 

HC1 
per 
cent. 

Grams 
HCi  per 
litre. 

Sp.  gr. 
at 
15°C./4°. 

HCI 
per 

cent. 

Grams 
HCI  per 
litre. 

Sp.  gr. 
at 
15*C./4° 

HCI 
per 

cent. 

Grams 
HCI  per 
litre. 

1-005 

1-15 

12 

1-075 

15-16 

163 

1-140 

27-66 

315 

1-010 

2-14 

22 

1-080 

1615 

174 

1-145 

28  61 

328 

1-015 

3-12 

32 

1-085 

17-13 

186 

1-150 

29-57 

340 

1-020 

4-13 

42 

1-090 

18-11 

197 

1'155 

30-55 

353 

1-025 

5-15 

53 

1-095 

19-06 

209 

1-160 

31-52 

366 

1-030 

6'15 

64 

1-100 

20-01 

220 

1-165 

32-49 

379 

1-035 

7-15 

74 

1-105 

20-97 

232 

1-170 

33-46 

392 

1-040 

8-16 

85 

•110 

21-92 

243 

1-175 

34-42 

404 

1-045 

9-16 

96 

•115 

22-86 

255 

1-180 

35-39 

418 

1-050 

10-17 

107 

•120 

23-82 

267 

1-185 

36-31 

430 

1-055 

11-18 

118 

•125 

24-78 

278 

1-190 

37-23 

443 

1-060 

12-19 

129 

•130 

25-75 

291 

1-195 

3816 

456 

1-065 

13-19 

141 

•135 

26-70 

303 

1-200 

39-11 

469 

1-070 

14-17 

152 

*  Alkali  Makers'  Handbook  (Lunge  and  Hurter),  p.  120. 

TABLE  SHOWING  THE  STRENGTHS  OF  NITRIC  ACID  OF 
DIFFERENT  DENSITIES.     (Lunge  and  Key.*) 


Sp.  gr. 
at  15°/4°. 

HN03 
per  cent. 

Sp.  gr. 
at  15e/4°. 

HN03 

per  cent. 

Sp.  gr. 
at!5°/4°. 

HN03 

per  cent. 

1-020 

3-70 

1-220 

35-28 

1-420 

69-80 

1-030 

5-50 

1  230 

3678 

1-430 

7217 

1'040 

7-26 

1-240 

38-29 

1-440 

74-68 

1-050 

8-99 

1-250 

39-82 

1-450 

77'28 

1-060 

10-68 

1-260 

41-34 

1-460 

79-98 

1-070 

12-33 

1-270 

42-87 

1-470 

82-90 

1-080 

13-95 

1-280 

44-41 

1-480 

86-05 

1-090 

15-53 

1-290 

45-95 

1-490 

89-60 

1100 

17-11 

1  -300 

47-49 

1-500 

94-09 

1-110 

18-67 

1-310 

49-07 

1-502 

95-08 

1-120 

20-23 

1-320 

50-71 

1-504 

96-00 

1-130 

21-77 

1-330 

52-37 

1-506 

96-76 

1-140 

23  31 

1-340 

54-07 

1-508 

97-50 

1-150 

24-84 

1-350 

5579 

1-610 

98-10 

1-160 

26-36 

1-360 

57-57 

1-512 

98-53 

1-170 

27-88 

1-370 

59-39 

1:514 

98-90 

1-180 

29-38 

1-380 

61-27 

1-516 

99-21 

1-190 

30-88 

1  -390 

63-23 

1-518 

99-46 

1-200 

32-36 

1-400 

65-30 

1-520 

99-67 

1-210 

33-82 

1-410 

67-50 

Note. — To  get  N^O^  subtract  one-seventh  from  the  percentage  of  nitric  acid 
Thus,  1-450  sp.  gr.  =  77-28-H-04  =  6G-24?0  N205. 

*  From  Lunge's  Sulphuric  Acid  and  Alkali,  Vol.  I.,  third  edition,  1903,  pp.  99- 
101.  The  figures  refer  to  chemically  pure  nitric  acid  ;  commercial  acid,  containing 
nitrous  acid,  etc.,  contains  less  real  HNOgat  the  same  density. 

V*  Veley  and  Manley  have  recently  published  (see  Jour.  Soc.  Chem.  Ind.,  1903 
pp.  1227-1229)  a  table  of  densities  of  nitric  acid  from  1-385  to  1-521,  the  results  of 
which  agree  closely  with  those  tabulated  above. 


74 


SPECIFIC   GRAVITY    OF    SULPHURIC   ACID. 


CORRECTIONS  FOR  1°  C.  (ADD  WHEN  ABOVE  15°,  SUBTRACT 

WHEN    BELOW   15°  C.). 


Sp.  gr. 

Correction. 

Sp.  gr. 

Correction. 

1-020-1-040 
1-041-1  070 
1-071-1-100 
1-101-1-130 
1-131-1-160 
1-161-1-200 
1-201-1-245 
1-246-1-280 

0-0002 
0-0003 
0-0004 
0-0005 
0-0006 
0-0007 
0-0008 
0-0009 

1-281-1-310 
1-311-1-350 
1-351-1-365 
1-366-1-400 
1-401-1-435 
1-436-1-490 
1-491-1  -500 
1-501-1-520 

O'OOIO 

0-0011 

0-0012 
0-0013 
0-0014 
0-0015 
0  0016 
0-0017 

TABLE  SHOWING  THE  STRENGTH  OF  SULPHURIC  ACID  OF 
DIFFERENT  DENSITIES.     (Lunge,  Isler  and  Naef.*) 


Sp.  gr.  at 
15°/4°  C. 

S03  per 
cent. 

H2S04 
per  cent. 

Grams 
H2S04 
per  litre. 

Sp.  gr.  at 

1574°  c. 

S03  per 
cent. 

H2S04 
per  cent. 

Grams 
H2S04 
per  litre. 

1-010 

1-28 

157 

16 

1-340 

35-71 

4374 

586 

1-020 

2-47 

3-03 

31 

•350 

36-58 

44-82 

605 

1-030 

3-67 

4-49 

46 

•360 

37-45 

45-88 

624 

T040 

4-87 

5  96 

62 

•370 

38-32 

46-94 

643 

1-050 

6-02 

7-37 

77 

•380 

39-18 

48-00 

662 

1-060 

7-16 

8-77 

93 

•390 

40-05 

49-06 

682 

1-070 

8-32 

10-19 

109 

•400 

40-91 

50-11 

702 

1-080 

9-47 

11-60 

125 

•410 

41-76 

51-15 

721 

1-090 

10-60 

12-99 

142 

1  -420 

42-57 

52-15 

740 

1-100 

11-71 

14  35 

158 

1-430 

43-36 

53-11 

759 

1-110 

12  82 

15-71 

175 

1-440 

44-14 

54-07 

779 

1-120 

13-89 

17-01 

191 

1-450 

44-92 

55-03 

798 

1-130 

14-95 

18-31 

207 

1-460 

45-69 

55-P7 

817 

1-140 

16-01 

19-61 

223 

1-470 

4(5-45 

56-90 

837 

1-150 

17-07 

20-91 

239 

1-480 

47-21 

57-83 

856 

1-160 

18-11 

22-19 

257 

1-490 

47-95 

58-74 

876 

1-170 

19-16 

23-47 

275 

1-500 

48  73 

5970 

896 

1-180 

20-21 

2476 

292 

1-510 

49-51 

60-65 

916 

1-190 

21  -26 

26-04 

310 

1-520 

50-28 

61-59 

936 

1-200 

22-30 

27-32 

328 

1-530 

51-04 

62-53 

957 

1-210 

23  33 

28-58 

346 

1-540 

51-78 

63-43 

977 

1-220 

24-36 

29-84 

364 

1-550 

52-46 

64  26 

996 

1-230 

25-39 

31-11 

382 

•560 

53-12 

65-08 

1015 

1-240 

26-35 

32-28 

400 

•570 

53-80 

65-90 

1035 

1-250 

27-29 

33-43 

418 

•580 

54-46 

66-71 

1054 

1-260 

28-22 

34-57 

435 

•590 

55-18 

67-59 

1075 

1-270 

29-15 

35-71 

454 

•600 

55-93 

68-51 

1096 

1-280 

30-10 

36-87 

472 

•610 

56-68 

69-43 

1118 

1-290 

31-04 

38-03 

490 

•620 

57-40 

70-32 

1139 

1-300 

31-99 

39-19 

510 

•630 

58'09 

71-16 

1160 

1-310 

32-94 

40-35 

529 

•640 

5877 

71  99 

1180 

1-320 

33  88 

41'50 

548 

1-650 

59-45 

72-82 

1202 

1-330 

34-80 

42-66 

567 

1-660 

60-11 

73-64 

1222 

*  Lunge's  Sulphuric  Acid  and  Alkali,  Vol.  I.,  third  edition,  1903,  pp.  180-1SP. 


SPECIFIC   GRAVITIES    OF   AQUEOUS    AMMONIA. 


75 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  STRENGTH  OF  SULPHURIC  ACID  OF  DIFFERENT 
DENSITIES — continued. 


Sp.  gr.  at 
15°/4°  C. 

S03  per 
cent. 

H2S04 
per  cent. 

Grams 
H2S04 
per  litre. 

Sp.  gr.  at 

1574°  c. 

S03  per 
cent. 

H2S04 
per  cent. 

Grams 
H2S04 

per  litre. 

1-670 

60-82 

74-51 

1244 

790 

69-96 

85-70 

1534 

1-680 

61-57 

75-42 

1267 

795 

70-45 

86-30 

1549 

1-690 

62-29 

76-30 

1289 

•800 

70-94 

86-90 

1564 

1700 

63-00 

77-17 

1312 

•805 

71-50 

87-60 

1581 

1-710 

6370 

78-04 

1334 

•810 

72-08 

88-30 

1598 

1-720 

64-43 

78-92 

1357 

•815 

72-69 

89-05 

1621 

1-730 

65-14 

79  80 

1381 

•820 

73-51 

90-05 

1639 

1-740 

65-86 

80-68 

1404 

•825 

74-29 

91-00 

1661 

1-750 

66-58 

81'56 

1427 

1-830 

75-19 

92-10 

1685 

1-760 

67-30 

82-44 

1451 

1-835 

76-27 

93-43 

1713 

1-765 

67-65 

82-88 

1463 

1-840 

78-04 

95-60 

1759 

1-770 

68-02 

83-32 

1475 

1-840 

80-98 

99-20 

1825 

1775 

68-49 

83  90 

1489 

1-841 

79  19 

97-00 

1786 

1780 

68-98 

84-50 

1504 

1-841 

80-16 

98-20 

1808 

1785 

69-47 

85-10 

1519 

1-8385 

81-59 

99'95 

1838 

Note.— The  maximum  density  does  not  coincide  with  the  greatest  strength,  that 
is,  pure  monohydrated  sulphuric  acid,  HaS04.  The  maximum  density  is  at  about 
98-5  per  cent.,  and  from  this  point  the  densities  decline  to  100  per  cent.  H2SC>4. 

CORRECTION  FOR  1°  C.  (ADD  WHEN  ABOVE  15°,  SUBTRACT 

WHEN    BELOW   15°    C. ). 

Sp.  gr.  Correction. 

1-170  (or  less)  0'0006 

1-170-1-450  0-0007 

1-450-1-580  0-0008 

1-580-1-750  0-0009 

1-750-1-840  0-0010 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITIES  ov  AQUEOUS  AMMONIA. 
(Lunge  and  Wiernik.) 


Specific 
gravity  at 
15°  C. 

NH3  per 

cent. 

1  litre  at  15°  C. 
contains 
grams  NH3. 

Specific 
gravity  at 
15°  C. 

NH3  per 

cent. 

llitreatl5°C. 
contains 
grams  NH3. 

0-882 

34-95 

308-3 

0-910 

24-99 

227-4 

•884 

34-10 

301  4 

•912 

24-33 

221-9 

•886 

33-25 

294-6 

•914 

23-68 

216-3 

•888 

32-50 

288-6 

•916 

23-03 

210-9 

•890 

3175 

282-6 

•918 

22-39 

205-6 

•892 

31-05 

277-0 

•920 

2175 

200-1 

•894 

30-37 

271-5 

•922 

2112 

194-7 

•896 

29-69 

266-0 

•924 

20-49 

189-3 

•898 

29-01 

260-5 

•926 

19-87 

184-2 

•900 

28-33 

255  0 

•928 

19-25 

178-6 

•902 

27-65 

249-4 

•930 

18-64 

173-4 

•904 

26-98 

243-9 

•932 

18-03 

168  1 

•906 

26-31 

238-3 

•934 

17-42 

162-7 

•908 

25-65 

232-9 

•936 

16-82 

157'4 

76 


SPECIFIC    GRAVITIES    OF    CAUSTIC    SODA    AND    POTASH. 


SPECIFIC  GRAVITIES  OF  AQUEOUS  AMMONIA— continued. 


Specific 
gravity  at 
15"  C. 

NH3  per 
cent. 

1  litre  atl5"C. 
contains 
grams  NH.3. 

Specific 
gravity  at 
15°  C. 

NH3  per 
cent. 

1  litre  at  15°  C. 
contains 
grams  NH3. 

0-938 

16-22 

1521 

0-^70 

7-31 

70-9 

•940 

15-63 

146-9 

•972 

6-80 

66-1 

•942 

15-04 

1417 

•974 

6-30 

61-4 

•944 

14-46 

136-5 

•976 

5-80 

56-6 

•946 

13-88 

131-3 

•978 

5'30 

51-8 

•948 

13-31 

126-2 

•980 

4-80 

47-0 

•950 

12-74 

121-0 

•982 

4-30 

42  2 

•952 

12'17 

115-9 

•984 

3-80 

37-4 

•954 

11-60 

110-7 

•986 

3'30 

32'5 

•956 

11-03 

105-4 

•988 

2-80 

27-7 

•958 

10-47 

100-3 

•990 

2-31 

22-9 

•960 

9-91 

95-1 

•992 

1  84 

18-2 

•962 

9-35 

89-9 

•994 

1-37 

13-6 

•964 

8-84 

85-2 

•996 

0'91 

9-1 

•966 

8-33 

80-5 

•998 

0-45 

4-5 

•968 

7-82 

757 

1-000 

o-oo 

o-o 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITIES  OF  SOLUTIONS  OF  SODIUM  AND  POTASSIUM 
HYDROXIDES  AT  15c/4°  C. 


Sp.gr. 

%  NaOH. 

%KOH. 

Sp.gr. 

%  NaOH. 

%KOH. 

1-010 

0-86 

1-18 

1-280 

25-04 

29-00 

1-020 

1-69 

2-28 

1-290 

25-96 

29-96 

1-030 

2'60 

3-36 

1-300 

26-85 

30*91 

1-040 

3-50 

4-44 

1-310 

27-85 

31-84 

1-050 

4-34 

5-53 

1-320 

28-83 

32-78 

1-060 

5-20 

6-60 

1-330 

29-80 

33-70 

1-070 

6-13 

7-68 

1-340 

30-74 

34-63 

1-080 

7-05 

876 

1-350 

31-75 

35-55 

1-090 

7-95 

9-82 

1-360 

32-79 

36-46 

1-100 

8-78 

10-87 

1-370 

33-73 

37-37 

1-110 

9-67 

11-92 

1-380 

34-71 

38-28 

1-120 

10-56 

12-96 

1-390 

35-68 

39-18 

1-130 

11-55 

14-01 

1-400 

36-67 

40-09 

1-140 

12-49 

15-04 

1-410 

37-65 

40-98 

1-150 

13-34 

16-08 

1-420 

38-67 

41-87 

•160 

14-19 

17-10 

•430 

39-67 

4276 

•170 

15-06 

18-13 

•440 

40-68 

43-63 

•180 

16-00 

19-15 

•450 

41-70 

44-50 

•190 

16-91 

20-17 

•460 

42-75 

45-37 

•200 

17-81 

21-17 

•470 

43  -80 

46-23 

•210 

18-71 

22-16 

•480 

44-85 

47  09 

1-220 

19-65 

23-17 

•490 

45-89 

47-93 

1-230 

20-60 

24-14 

•500 

46-94 

48-78 

1-240 

21-47 

25-13 

1-510 

48-00 

49-64 

1-250 

22-33 

26-10 

1-520 

49'05 

50-48 

1-260 

23-23 

27-07 

1-530 

50-10 

51-32 

1-270 

24-13 

28-04 

The  above  table  is  abbreviated  from  the  very  full  tables  given  in  Lunge's  Technical 
Chemist*'  Handbook  (1908). 


SATURATED   SOLUTIONS    OP   SALTS. 


77 


STKENGTH  OF  SATURATED  SOLUTIONS  OF  A  FEW 
COMMON  SALTS.* 


At  60°  F. 

Sp.  gr.  of 
saturated 
solution. 

C.c.  of 
water 
dissolve 
1  gram. 

Grams  in 
1  litre  of 
saturated 
solution. 

Acid,  chromic    "... 

1710 

0'59 

1075-5 

,,     citric    .         .         ...-,„.     .,,. 

1-3026 

0-51 

8617 

,,     tartaric          .         v     "  •         * 

1-31 

071 

766-1 

Alum,  ammonia     .         .         .         . 

1-0459 

9-95 

95-5 

,,       potash          .         ... 

1-046 

9-70 

977 

Ammonium  carbonate     .         .         . 

1-094 

3-94 

221-5 

,,           chloride   _  .        .        . 

1-077 

2-8 

472-4 

Borax     ...... 

1-0205 

23-7 

41-3 

Calcium  chloride  (anh  yd.)       .         . 

1-4096 

1-41 

584-6 

„         (CaCl2,2H20)      -. 

1  -4096 

0-82 

774-2 

Copper  sulphate      .         .         .         . 

1-193 

2-79 

314  8 

Lead  acetate  .         .         .         ... 

1-2554 

2-37 

372-5 

Magnesium  sulphate       .         .         . 

1-2755 

0-98 

643-9 

Mercuric  chloride   .         . 

1-0472 

17-9 

55-4 

Potassium  acetate  .         .         .       -, 

1-406 

0-28 

1099-2 

bicarbonate    . 

1-1688 

3-21 

2777 

dichromate    .         . 

1  066 

9-93 

97-5 

bromide         . 

1-3615 

1-59 

525-7 

chlorate          . 

1-038 

16  53 

59-2 

hydrate 

1-553 

0-647 

942-9 

iodide    .... 

1-7039 

0-701 

996-4 

nitrate  .... 

1-1452 

377 

240-1 

permanganate        .  .  .    . 

1  -0368 

187 

52-7 

sulphate         .-•        . 

1-0784 

9-65 

101-3 

Sodium  bicarbonate         ,         .         < 

1-0608 

11-08 

87-8 

,        carbonate  .         .        .        . 

1-1608 

1-66 

436-4 

,        chloride     .         .         . 

1-204 

2-8 

316-8 

,         phosphate  .         . 

1-0489 

6-91 

132-6 

,        sulphate    .... 

1-1114 

2-68 

3027 

Zinc  sulphate          . 

1-452 

0-65 

880-0 

Note.— In  all  the  above  determinations  the  substances  are  calculated  as  of 
official  (i.e.,  B.P.),  not  absolute,  purity. 
*  H.  G.  Greenish  in  the  Pharm.  Journal,  Dec.  26, 1903. 


78 


GLYCERINE. 


GLYCERINE  TABLE. 


u, 

cent. 

15°  CP<  59°  F. 

20°  C?'  6S'  F. 

Per 

cent. 

Sp.gr. 
15°  C. 

Per 

cent. 

Sp  gr. 
15'  C. 

Glycer- 
ine. 

15°   ~    59° 

20*   ~    68° 

Glycer- 
ine. 

16". 

Glycer- 
ine. 

15°/ 

100 

1*26596 

1-26348 

74 

1-19583 

40 

1-10253 

99 

1  -26335 

1-26085 

73 

1-19309 

35 

1-08908 

98 

1-26072 

1-25822 

72 

1-19035 

30 

1-07564 

97 

1-25809 

1-25560 

71 

1-18761 

25 

1-06236 

96 

1-25547 

1-25297 

70 

1-18487 

20 

1-04930 

95 

1-25285 

1-25034 

69 

1-18212 

15 

1-03652 

94 

1-25021 

1-24771 

68 

117937 

10 

1-02409 

93 

1-24756 

1-24508 

67 

•17662 

5 

1-01189 

92 

1-24487 

1-24246 

66 

•17387 

Q1 

1  •QJOI  7 

1  '93QR^ 

«K 

-1711  '3 

«7l 

90 

1     -,-i  Z  1  / 

1-23945 

1     —  Ot7'-O 

1-23720 

O*> 

64 

J.  /  1  1  0 

•16837 

89 

1-23673 

1-23449 

63 

•16561 

Sp.  gr. 

88 

1-23400 

1-23178 

62 

•16286 

20°  C. 

87 

1-23128 

1-22907 

61 

•16011 

20" 

86 

1-22855 

1-22636 

60 

1-15737 

OK 

1  •9OKQQ 

1  »99QfiK 

KQ 

1  •!  ^4fi9 

DO 

84 

1   ^^Ooo 

1-22310 

1   £  £  O  O  O 

1-22094 

•jy 

58 

X       1  1>T  O  -. 

1-15187 

83 

1-22038 

1-21823 

57 

1-14912 

70 

1-18293 

82 

1-21766 

1-21552 

56 

1-14637 

60 

1-15561 

81 

1-21493 

1-21281 

55 

1-14362 

50 

1-12831 

80 

1-21221 

1-21010 

54 

1-14088 

40 

1-10118 

79 

1-20949 

1-20737 

53 

1-13814 

30 

1-07469 

78 

1-20677 

1-20464 

52 

1-13539 

20 

1-04884 

77 

1-20404 

1-20190 

51 

1-13265 

10 

1-02391 

76 

1-20131 

1-19917 

50 

1-12990 

75 

1-19857 

1-19644 

45 

1-11618 

The  above  table  is  a  combination  of  W.  W.  J.  NicoPs  excellent  tables 
for  the  two  temperatures  above  specified,  as  given  in  the  United  States 
Dispensatory,  p.  653,  and  in  Watts's  Dictionary  of  Chemistry  (most 
recent  edition  in  each  case).  In  the  former  work  a  complete  table  from 
1-100°/0  glycerine,  at  15°  C.  is  given. 

The  following  formula  is  useful  : — 

g^g^^i^glycerine-l-OOO,^  by  weight  of  glycerinet 

The  divisor  '00261  is  more  accurate,  however,  for  mixtures  containing 
between  30  and  60%  glycerine,  and  '0025  for  those  below  30%. 


REAGENTS    FOR    WATER   ANALYSIS.  79 

THE  PREPARATION  OP  REAGENTS  FOR  WATER  ANALYSIS. 

Nessler's  Solution. — First,  dissolve  150  grams  of  stick  potash  in 
150  c.c.  of  water,  and  set  aside  to  cool.  Next,  dissolve  62'5  grams 
of  potassium  iodide  in  about  250  c.c.  of  water  in  a  1200  c.c.  beaker, 
transfer  about  10  c.c.  to  a  small  beaker,  and  add  gradually  to  the 
main  bulk,  with  constant  stirring,  a  cold  saturated  solution  of 
mercuric  chloride  (of  which  about  500  c.c.  will  be  required)  until  a 
permanent  precipitate  is  obtained.  Now  add  the  potassium  iodide 
solution  in  the  small  beaker,  which  should  redissolve  the  precipi- 
tate, and  continue  adding  cautiously  mercuric  chloride  until  a 
slight  precipitate  remains  undissolved  on  stirring.  Add  the  cold 
potash  solution,  transfer  the  whole  to  a  litre  flask,  make  up  to  the 
mark  with  water,  and  pour  into  a  stoppered  bottle.  After  standing 
about  12  hours  the  solution  will  have  become  clear,  and  should 
then  be  tested  as  follows  :  To  50  c.c.  of  ammonia-free  water  add 
0*2  c.c.  of  standard  ammonium  chloride  solution  (  =  0'00001  gram 
NH3),  mix,  and  then  add  2  c.c.  of  Nessler's  solution,  when  a  yellow 
tinge  should  appear  at  once  if  the  latter  solution  be  properly  made. 
If  the  Nessler's  solution  is  not  sensitive — which  will  be  the  case  if 
it  is  perfectly  colourless,  instead  of  the  proper  greenish-yellow 
tint — a  little  more  mercuric  chloride  solution  should  be  added,  the 
whole  well  mixed,  allowed  to  settle,  and  tested  again. 

Some  Nessler's  solutions  give  a  red  precipitate  when  added  to  water. 
The  art  of  making  a  thoroughly  satisfactory  Nessler's  solution  can 
only  be  acquired  by  practice. 

Alkaline  permanganate  solution. — Dissolve  200  grams  of  stick 
potash  in  water  in  a  large  porcelain  dish  and  add  a  solution  of 
8  grams  of  potassium  permanganate  in  water,  using  1100  c.c. 
altogether.  Boil  rapidly  until  concentrated  to  about  900  c.c.,  add 
about  200  c.c.  of  hot  distilled  water,  and  continue  boiling  till  the 
volume  is  reduced  to  a  litre.  When  cool,  pour  at  once  into  a 
bottle.  Every  fresh  lot  of  solution  made  should  be  carefully  tested 
before  being  used. 

Standard  solution  of  ammonium  chloride. — Dissolve  1'5704  grams 
of  pure  dry  ammonium  chloride  in  a  litre  of  ammonia-free  water ; 
of  this  take  100  c.c.  and  make  up  to  a  litre  with  water.  Of  this 
latter  solution 

1  c.c.  =  0'00005  gram  ammonia. 
1-21  c.c.  =  0-00005  gram  nitrogen. 

When  500  c.c.  of  water  are  distilled, 

1  c.c.  =  0-01  part  NH3  per  100,000. 
1-21  c.c.  =  0'01  part  N  „ 

The  solution  should  be  measured  in  a  standard  1  c.c.  pipette 
divided  into  hundredths. 

Or,  by  dissolving  1*9094  gm.  NH4C1  in  a  litre  of  water,  and  dilut- 
ing 100  c.c.  of  the  solution  to  1000  c.c.,  then  of  this  latter  solution 
1  c.c.  =0'00005  gram  ammoniacal  nitrogen. 


80  REAGENTS    FOB   WATER   ANALYSIS. 

Standard  silver  nitrate  solution. — Dissolve  2-4  grams  of  recryst. 
silver  nitrate  in  a  litre  of  water  and  standardize  against  a  solution 
of  pure  sodium  chloride  containing  0'8243  gram  per  litre  (1  c.c.  = 
0*0005  gram  chlorine). 

1  c.c.  silver  nitrate  solution  =  0*0005  gram  01, 
or  when  50  c.c.  of  water  are  titrated, 

1  c.c.  =  1  part  combined  chlorine  per  100,000. 

REAGENTS  FOR  DETERMINATION  OF  OXYGEN  ABSORBED. 

(i)  Dilute  sulphuric  acid. — Add  1  vol.  of  pure  sulphuric  acid  to 
3  vols.  of  water,  and  drop  in  potassium  permanganate  solution 
(ii)  until  the  liquid  retains  a  very  faint  pink  tint  after  being  kept 
at  80°  F.  for  four  hours. 

(ii)  Standard  solution  of  potassium  permanganate. — Dissolve  0'395 
gram  of  recryst.  potassium  permanganate  in  1  litre  of  water. 

1  c.c.  =  0'0001  gram  available  oxygen. 

(iii)  'Potassium  iodide  solution. — Dissolve  1  part  of  the  pure  salt 
in  10  parts  of  water. 

(iv)  Sodium  thiosulphate  solution. — Dissolve  1  gram  of  the  crystals 
in  1  litre  of  water. 

(v)  Starch  indicator. — One  part  of  clean  potato  starch,  or  arrow- 
root, is  mixed  smoothly  into  an  emulsion  with  cold  water,  then 
poured  gradually  into  about  150  or  200  times  its  weight  of  boiling 
water,  the  boiling  continued  for  a  few  minutes,  then  allowed  to 
stand  and  settle  thoroughly.  The  clear  solution  only  is  to  be  used 
as  the  indicator,  of  which  only  a  few  drops  are  necessary. 

Lintner's  soluble  starch  acts  well  as  an  indicator,  as  it  gives  at 
once  a  clear  solution  in  boiling  water. 

Thresh' s  starch  solution  (see  p.  94)  is  also  useful  as  an  indicator. 

RBAGENTS  REQUIRED  FOR  DETERMINATION  OF  HARDNESS. 

Preparation  of  soap  solution  for  Clark's  test. — Weigh  out  50 
grams  of  commercial  oleic  acid  in  a  beaker  and  add  100  c.c.  of 
an  alcoholic  potash  solution  made  by  dissolving  20  grams  of  stick 
potash  in  180  c.c.  of  industrial  methylated  spirit,  and  continue 
adding  the  same  solution  from  a  burette  till  a  drop  of  the  oleate 
just  gives  a  red  colour  with  phenol-phthalein  spotted  on  a  white 
tile — about  10  c.c.  more  being  required.  Measure  the  solution 
and  make  the  volume  to  400  c.c.  by  the  addition  of  methylated 
spirit.  45  c.c.  of  the  strong  soap  solution  thus  obtained  are  diluted 
with  methylated  spirit  (2  vols.)  and  water  (1  vol.)  to  a  litre, 
allowed  to  stand  for  about  24  hours,  filtered  through  a  double 
Swedish  filter,  and  standardized  against  standard  calcium  chloride 


WATER    ANALYSIS    TABLES. 


81 


solution.  The  solution  will  be  found  to  be  a  little  too  strong,  and 
is  diluted  to  exact  strength,  which  is  attained  when  14'25  c.c.  are 
required  to  form  a  permanent  lather  with  50  c.c.  of  the  standard 
calcium  chloride  solution. 

Standard  calcium  chloride  solution. — Dissolve  0'2  gram  of  Iceland 
spar  in  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  in  a  platinum  dish,  adding  the 
acid  gradually  and  having  the  dish  covered  with  a  Inrge  watch 
glass  to  prevent  loss  by  spirting.  When  solution  has  taken  place, 
rinse  the  glass  into  the  dish,  and  evaporate  to  dryness  on  a  water- 
bath  :  add  water  and  again  evaporate  to  dryness,  and  repeat  this 
addition  of  water  and  evaporation  two  or  three  times  in  order  to 
ensure  complete  expulsion  of  hydrochloric  acid.  Finally,  take  up 
the  residue  with  distilled  water,  and  make  up  the  solution  to 
1  litre. 

50  c.c.  correspond  to  O'Ol  gram  CaC03. 


TABLES  REQUIRED  IN  WATER  ANALYSIS. 

I.   Tension  of  Aqueous  Vapour  in  Millimetres  of  Mercury  from, 
0°  to  35°  C. 


•c. 

mm. 

•c. 

mm. 

'C. 

mm.        *  C. 

mm. 

°C. 

mm. 

O'O 

4-600 

2'5 

5-491 

5-0 

6-534 

7-5 

7-751 

10-0 

9'165 

•1 

•633 

•6 

•530 

•1 

•580 

•6 

•804 

•1 

•227 

•2 

•667 

•7 

•569 

•2 

•625 

•7 

•857 

•2 

•288 

•3 

•700 

•8 

•608 

•3 

•671 

•8 

•910 

•3 

•350 

•4 

•733 

•9 

•647 

•4 

•717 

•9 

•964 

•4 

•412 

0-5 

•767 

3-0 

5-687 

5-5 

•763 

8-0 

8-017 

10-5 

•474 

•6 

•801 

•1 

727 

•6 

•810 

•1 

•072 

•6 

•537 

•7 

•836 

•2 

•767 

•7 

•857 

•2 

•126 

•7 

•601 

•8 

•871 

•3 

•807 

•8 

•904 

•3 

•181 

•8 

•665 

•9 

•905 

•4 

•848 

•9 

•951 

•4 

•236 

•9 

•728 

I'O 

4-940 

3-5 

•890 

6-0 

6-998 

8-5 

•291 

ll'O 

9792 

•1 

•975 

•6 

•930 

•1 

7-047 

•6 

•347 

•1 

•857 

•2 

5-011 

•7 

•972 

•2 

•095 

7 

•404 

•2 

•923 

•3 

•047 

•8 

6-014 

•3 

•144 

•8 

•461 

•3 

•989 

•4 

•082 

•9 

•056 

•4 

•193 

•9 

•517 

•4 

10-054 

1-5 

•118 

4-0 

6-097 

6'5 

•242 

9-0 

8-574 

11-5 

•120 

•6 

•155 

•1 

•140 

•6 

•292 

•1 

•632 

•6 

•187 

•7 

•191 

•2 

•183 

•7 

•342 

•2 

•690 

•7 

•255 

•8 

•228 

•3 

•226 

•8 

•392 

•3 

•748 

•8 

•322 

•9 

265 

•4 

•270 

•9 

•442 

•4 

•807 

•9 

•339 

2-0 

5-302 

4-5 

•313 

7-0 

7-492 

9'5 

•865 

12-0 

10-457 

•1 

•340 

•6 

•357 

•1 

•544 

•6 

•925 

•1 

•526 

•2 

•378 

•7 

•401 

•2 

•595 

•7 

•985 

•2 

•596 

•3 

•416 

•8 

•445 

•3 

•647 

•8 

9-045 

•3 

•665 

•4 

•454 

•9 

•490 

•4 

•699 

•9 

•105 

•4 

•734 

1 

82  WATER   ANALYSIS   TABLES. 

TABLES  REQUIRED  IN  WATER  ANALYSIS.     TABLE  I. — continued. 


•c. 

mm. 

•c. 

mm. 

•c. 

mm. 

°c. 

mm. 

°C. 

mm. 

12-5 

10-804 

17-1 

14-513 

217 

19-305 

26-3 

25-438 

30-9 

33-215 

•6 

•875 

•2 

•605 

•8 

•423 

•4 

•588 

31-0 

33-405 

7 

•947 

•3 

•697 

•9 

•541 

26-5 

•738 

•1 

•596 

•8 

11-019 

•4 

•790 

22-0 

19-659 

•6 

•891 

•2 

•787 

•9 

•090 

17'5 

•882 

•1 

•780 

•7 

26-045 

•3 

•980 

13-0 

11-162 

•6 

•977 

•2 

•901 

•8 

•198 

•4 

34-174 

•1 

•235 

•7 

15-072 

•3 

20-022 

•9 

•351 

31-5 

•368 

•2 

•309 

•8 

•167 

•4 

•143 

27-0 

26-505 

•6 

•564 

•3 

.383 

•9 

•262 

22-5 

•265 

•1 

•663 

7 

•761 

•4 

•456 

18'0 

15-357 

•6 

•389 

•2 

•820 

•8 

•959 

13-5 

•530 

•1 

•454 

•7 

•514 

•3 

•978 

•9 

35-159 

•6 

•605 

•2 

•552 

•8 

•639 

•4 

27136 

32-0 

35-359 

7 

•681 

•3 

•650 

•9 

•763 

27-5 

•294 

•1 

•559 

•8 

•757 

•4 

•747 

23-0 

20-888 

•6 

•455 

•2 

•760 

•9 

•832 

18'5 

•845 

•1 

21-016 

•7 

•617 

•3 

•962 

u-o 

11-908 

•6 

•945 

•2 

•144 

•8 

•778 

•4 

36-165 

•1 

•986 

•7 

16-045 

•3 

•272 

•9 

•939 

32'5 

•370 

•2 

12-064 

•8 

•145 

•4 

•400 

28-0 

28-101 

•6 

•576 

•3 

•142 

•9 

•246 

23-5 

•528 

•1 

•267 

•7 

•783 

•4 

•220 

19'0 

16-346 

•6 

21-659 

•2 

•433 

•8 

•991 

14-5 

•298 

•1 

•449 

•7 

•790 

•3 

•599 

•9 

37-200 

•6 

•378 

•2 

•552 

•8 

•921 

•4 

•765 

33-0 

37-410 

•7 

•458 

•3 

•655 

•9 

22-053 

28-5 

•931 

•1 

•621 

•8 

•538 

•4 

•758 

24-0 

22-184 

•6 

29-101 

•2 

•832 

•9 

•619 

19-5 

•861 

•1 

•319 

•7 

•271 

•3 

38-045 

15-0 

12-699 

•6 

•967 

•2 

•453 

•8 

•441 

•4 

•258 

•1 

•781 

•7 

17-073 

•3 

•588 

•9 

•612 

33-5 

•473 

•2 

•864 

•8 

•179 

•4 

•723 

29-0 

29-782 

•6 

•689 

•3 

•947 

•9 

•285 

24-5 

•858 

•1 

•956 

•7 

•906 

•4 

13-029 

20'0 

17-391 

•6 

•996 

•2 

30-131 

•8 

39-124 

15-5 

•112 

•1 

•500 

•7 

23-135 

•3 

•305 

•9 

•344 

•6 

•197 

•2 

•608 

•8 

•273 

•4 

•479 

34-0 

39-565 

•7 

•281 

•3 

•717 

•9 

•411 

29-5 

•654 

•1 

•786 

•8 

•366 

•4 

•826 

25-0 

23-550 

•6 

•833 

•2 

40-007 

•9 

•451 

20-5 

•935 

•1 

•692 

•7 

31-011 

•3 

•230 

16-0 

13-536 

•6 

18-047 

•2 

•834 

•8 

•190 

•4 

•455 

•1 

•623 

•7 

•159 

•3 

•976 

•9 

•369 

34-5 

•680 

•2 

•710 

•8 

•271 

•4 

24-119 

30-0 

31-548 

•6 

•907 

•3 

•797 

•9 

•383 

25-5 

•261 

•1 

•729 

•7 

41-135 

•4 

•885 

21-0 

18-495 

•6 

•406 

•2 

•911 

•8 

•364 

16-5 

•972 

•1 

•610 

•7 

•552 

•3 

32-094 

•9 

•595 

•6 

14-062 

•2 

•724 

•8 

•697 

•4 

•278 

35-0 

•827 

7 

•151 

•3 

•839 

•9 

•842 

30-5 

•463 

•8 

•241 

•4 

•954 

26-0 

24-988 

•6 

•650 

•9 

•331 

21-5 

19-069 

•1 

25-138 

•7 

•837 

17-0 

14-421 

•6 

•187 

•2 

•288 

•8 

33-026 

WATER    ANALYSIS    TABLES. 

TABLES  REQUIRED  IN  WATER  ANALYSIS— continued. 
II.  Reduction  of  Cubic  Centimetres  of  Nitrogen  to  Grams. 


83 


Log. 


0-0012507 


(1  + -003665  0760 


for  each  tenth  of  a  degree  from  0°  to  30°  C. 


t. 

o-o 

o-i 

0-2 

0-3 

0-4 

0-5 

0-6 

0-7 

0-8 

0-9 

°c. 

0 

6-21634 

618 

602 

586 

570 

554 

539 

523 

507 

491 

1 

475 

459 

443 

427 

411 

395 

379 

363 

347 

332 

2 

317 

301 

285 

269 

253 

237 

221 

205 

189 

174 

3 

159 

143 

127 

112 

096 

080 

065 

049 

033 

018 

4 

002 

986 

970 

955 

939 

923 

908 

892 

876 

861 

5 

6-20845 

829 

813 

798 

782 

766 

751 

735 

719 

704 

6 

6-20689 

673 

658 

642 

627 

611 

596 

580 

565 

549 

7 

534 

518 

503 

487 

472 

456 

441 

425 

410 

394 

8 

379 

364 

348 

333 

317 

302 

286 

271 

255 

240 

9 

225 

210 

194 

179 

163 

148 

132 

117 

101 

086 

10 

071 

056 

040 

025 

009 

994 

979 

963 

948 

932 

1] 

6-19917 

902 

887 

872 

856 

841 

826 

811 

796 

780 

12 

6-19765 

750 

735 

720 

704 

689 

674 

659 

644 

628 

13 

613 

598 

583 

568 

552 

537 

522 

'507 

492 

476 

14 

461 

446 

431 

416 

401 

386 

371 

356 

341 

325 

15 

310 

295 

280 

265 

250 

235 

220 

205 

190 

174 

16 

159 

144 

129 

114 

099 

084 

069 

054 

039 

024 

17 

009 

994 

979 

964 

949 

934 

919 

904 

889 

874 

18 

6-18859 

844 

829 

814 

799 

784 

769 

754 

739 

724 

19 

710 

695 

680 

665 

650 

635 

620 

606 

591 

576 

20 

562 

547 

532 

517 

502 

487 

472 

458 

443 

428 

21 

414 

399 

384 

369 

354 

339 

324 

310 

295 

280 

22 

266 

251 

236 

221 

206 

191 

176 

162 

147 

132 

23 

119 

104 

089 

075 

060 

045 

031 

016 

002 

987 

24 

6-17973 

958 

943 

929 

914 

899 

885 

870 

856 

841 

25 

827 

812 

797 

783 

768 

753 

739 

724 

710 

695 

26 

681 

666 

651 

637 

622 

607 

593 

578 

564 

549 

27 

536 

521 

507 

492 

478 

463 

449 

434 

420 

405 

28 

391 

376 

362 

347 

333 

318 

304 

289 

275 

260 

29 

247 

232 

218 

203 

189 

175 

160 

146 

131 

117 

84 


WATER   ANALYSIS    TABLES. 


TABLES  REQUIRED  IN  WATER  ANALYSIS— continued. 

III.  Loss  of  Nitrogen  by  Evaporation  of  NHZ  with 

Sulphurous  Acid. 

Tarts  per  100,000. 


NH3 

Loss 

of  N 

NH3 

Loss 
of  N 

NH3 

Loss 
of  N 

NH3 

Loss 
of  N 

NH3 

Loss 
ofN  \ 

NH, 

Loss 

ofN 

6'0 

1727 

4-8 

1-451 

3-6 

•977 

2-4 

•503 

1-2 

•250 

•09 

•014 

5-9 

1707 

47 

1-411 

3-5 

•937 

2'3 

•463 

1-1 

•238 

•08 

•013 

5'8 

1-688 

4-6 

1-372 

3-4 

•898 

2-2 

•424 

1-0 

•226 

•07 

•012 

57 

1-668 

4-5 

1-332 

3-3 

•858 

2-1 

•384 

0-9 

•196 

•06 

•010 

5-6 

1-648 

4-4 

1-293 

3-2 

•819 

2-0 

•345 

•8 

•166 

•05 

•009 

5-5 

1-628 

4-3 

1-253 

3-1 

779 

1-9 

•333 

7 

•136 

•04 

•007 

5-4 

1-609 

4-2 

1-214 

3-0 

•740 

1-8 

•321 

•6 

•106 

•03 

•006 

5-3 

1-589 

4-1 

1-174 

2-9 

700 

17 

•309 

•5 

•077 

•02 

•004 

5-2 

1-569 

4-0 

1-135 

2-8 

•661 

1-6 

•297 

•4 

•062 

•01 

•003 

5-1 

1-549 

3-9 

1-095 

27 

•621 

1-5 

•285 

•3 

•047 

•009 

•001 

5-0 

1-530 

3-8 

1-056 

2-6 

•582 

1-4 

•274 

•2 

•032 

4'9 

1-490 

3-7 

1-016 

2-5 

•542 

1-3 

•262 

•1 

0-17 

\ 

; 

IV.  Loss  of  Nitrogen  by  Evaporation  of  NH%  with  Hydric 
Metaphosphate. 

Parts  per  100,000. 


Volume 
evaporated. 

NH, 

Loss 
ofN 

Volume 
evaporated. 

NH, 

Loss 
ofN 

Volume 
evaporated. 

NH8 

Loss 
ofN 

100  C.C. 

10-0 

•483 

100  C.C. 

8-3 

•424 

100  c.c. 

6'6 

•365 

9  > 

9-9 

•480 

M 

8-2 

•421 

M 

6'5 

•361 

9-8 

•476 

M 

81 

•417 

>  > 

6'4 

•358 

ii 

97 

•473 

i 

8-0 

•414 

j> 

6'3 

•354 

9-6 

•469 

7-9 

•410 

6'2 

•351 

j  > 

9-5 

•466 

i 

7'8 

•407 

9  > 

6-1 

•348 

9-4 

•462 

77 

•403 

6-0 

•345 

M 

9'3 

•459 

t 

7-6 

•400 

» 

5'9 

•341 

p 

9'2 

•455 

7-5 

•396 

5-8 

•337 

9-1 

•452 

• 

7'4 

•393 

99 

57 

•333 

i 

9-0 

•448 

, 

7-3 

•389 

ii 

5-6 

•330 

8'9 

•445 

j 

7'2 

•386 

5-5 

•326 

8-8 

•441 

7'1 

•382 

5-4 

•322 

I 

87 

•438 

( 

7-0 

•379 

M 

5'3 

•318 

8'6 

•434 

1 

6'9 

•375 

ii 

5'2 

•314 

8'5 

•431 

6-8 

•372 

5-1 

•310 

, 

8-4 

•428 

> 

67 

•368 

» 

5-0 

•306 

| 

WATER    ANALYSIS   TABLES.  85 

TABLES  REQUIRED  IN  WATER  ANALYSIS.     TABLE  IV. — continued. 


Volume 
evaporated. 

NH3 

Loss 
of  N 

Volume 
evaporated. 

NH3 

Loss 
of  N 

Volume 
evaporated. 

NH3 

Loss 
of  N 

100  C.C. 

4-9 

•302 

100  c.c. 

2-9 

•211 

250  C.C. 

•9 

•096 

4-8 

•298 

2-8 

•205 

11 

•8 

•080 

47 

•294 

27 

•200 

u 

7 

•070 

4'6 

•291 

2-6 

•195 

5  > 

•6 

•060 

| 

4-5 

•287 

2-5 

•190 

500  c.c. 

•5 

•050 

4-4 

•283 

2-4 

•184 

?j 

•4 

•040 

4-3 

•279 

2'3 

•179 

» 

•3 

•030 

4-2 

•275 

2  '2 

•174 

1000  c.c. 

•2 

•020 

41 

•271 

2-1 

•169 

H 

•1 

•010 

4-0 

•267 

2-0 

•164 

J  J 

•09 

•009 

3-9 

•262 

1-9 

•158 

•08 

•008 

3-8 

•257 

1-8 

•153 

f 

•07 

•007 

5 

37 

•252 

17 

•148 

|| 

•06 

•006 

3-6 

•247 

1-6 

•143 

M 

•05 

•005 

i 

3'5 

•242 

1-5 

•137 

•04 

•004 

3'4 

•236 

1-4 

•132 

» 

•03 

•003 

) 

3-3 

•231 

1-3 

•127 

)> 

•02 

•002 

3-2 

•226 

1-2 

•122 

|| 

•01 

•001 

3-1 

•221 

1-1 

•117 

i 

3-0 

•216 

1-0 

•112 

V.  Loss  of  Nitrogen  by  Evaporation  of  NH3  with 
Sulphurous  Acid. 

Parts  per  100,000. 


Nns 

Loss 

Nas 

Loss 

Nas 

Loss 

Nas 

Loss 

NT  as 

Loss 

Nas 

Loss 

NH3 

of  N 

NH3 

of  N 

NHg 

of  N 

NH3 

of  N 

NHg 

of  N 

NH3 

of  N 

5-0 

1741 

3-9- 

1-425 

2'9 

•946 

1-9 

•466 

•9 

•237 

•08 

•017 

4-9 

1717 

3-8 

1-378 

2'8 

•898 

1-8 

•418 

•8 

•217 

•07 

•015 

4-8 

1-693 

37 

1-330 

27 

•850 

17 

•370 

7 

•181 

•06 

•013 

47 

1-669 

3-6 

1'282 

2-6 

•802 

1-6 

•338 

•6 

•145 

•05 

•on 

4-6 

1-645 

3-5 

1-234 

2-5 

754 

1'5 

•324 

'5 

•109 

•04 

•009 

4'5 

1-621 

3-4 

1-186 

2-4 

706 

1-4 

•309 

•4 

•075 

•03 

•007 

4'4 

1-598 

3-3 

1-138 

2-3 

•658 

1-3 

•295 

•3 

•057 

•02 

•005 

4-3 

1-574 

3'2 

1-090 

2-2 

•610 

1-2 

•280 

•2 

•038 

•01 

•003 

4'2 

1-550 

3'1 

1-042 

2-1 

•562 

1-1 

•266 

•1 

•020 

•008 

•002 

4-1 

1-521 

3-0 

•994 

2-0 

•514 

1-0 

•252 

•09 

•018 

•007 

•001 

4-0 

1-473 

86 


WATER   ANALYSIS    TABLES. 


TABLES  REQUIRED  IN  WATER  ANALYSIS — continued. 
VI.  Loss  of  Nitrogen  by  Evaporation  of  NH%  with  Hydric 

Metaphosphate. 
Parts  per  100,000. 


Volume 
evaporated. 

Nas 
NH3 

Loss 
of  N 

Volume 
evaporated. 

Nas 
NHS 

Loss 
of  N 

Volume 
evaporated. 

Nas 
NH3 

Loss  : 
of  N 

100  c.c. 

8'2 

•482 

100  c.c. 

51 

•352 

100  c.c. 

2-1 

•192 

99 

8-1 

•477 

5'0 

•347 

99 

2-0 

•186 

It 

8-0 

•473 

4-9 

•343 

H 

1-9 

•180 

n 

7'9 

•469 

4-8 

•338 

1-8 

•173 

99 

7-8 

•465 

4-7 

•334 

» 

17 

•167 

9  > 

77 

•461 

4'6 

•329 

1-6 

•161 

it 

7'6 

•456 

4-5 

•324 

M 

1-5 

•154 

i 

7-5 

•452 

4-4 

•319 

9> 

1-4 

•148 

7-4 

•448 

4-3 

•315 

9> 

1-3 

•142 

9 

7-3 

•444 

4-2 

•310 

5  J 

1-2 

•136 

| 

7"2 

•440 

4-1 

•305 

1-1 

•129 

7'1 

•435 

4-0 

•301 

99 

ro 

•123 

( 

7-0 

•431 

3-9 

•296 

»9 

•9 

•117 

( 

6-9 

•427 

3-8 

•291 

99 

•8 

•111 

| 

6-8 

•423 

3-7 

•286 

250  c.c. 

7 

•038 

| 

6-7 

•419 

3'6 

•281 

|| 

•6 

•073 

6-6 

•414 

3'5 

•277 

pf 

•5 

•061 

6-5 

•410 

3-4 

•272 

500  c.c. 

•4 

•049 

6'4 

•406 

3-3 

•267 

!  ) 

•3 

•036 

6-3 

•402 

3-2 

•261 

1000  c.c. 

•2 

•024 

6-2 

•398 

3-1 

•255 

91 

•1 

•012 

| 

6'1 

•394 

3-0 

•249 

•09 

•on 

| 

6-0 

•389 

2-9 

•242 

99 

•08 

•010 

5'9 

•385 

2'8 

•236 

•07 

•008 

| 

5'8 

•381 

2-7 

"230 

99 

•06 

•007 

57 

•377 

2-6 

•223 

•05 

•006 

9 

5-6 

•373 

2-5 

•217 

H 

•04 

•005 

5-5 

•368 

2-4 

•211 

•03 

•004 

9 

6'4 

•364 

2-3 

•205 

ri 

•02 

•002 

H 

5'3 

•360 

2'2 

•198 

}  f 

•01 

•001 

5'2 

•356 

VII.  Table  of  Hardness. 
(50  c.c.  of  water  used.) 


Volume 
of  Soap 
solu- 
tion. 

CaC03 

per 
100,000 

Degrees 

of  Hard- 
ness.* 

Volume 
of  Soap 
solu- 
tion. 

CaCO, 
160,000 

Degrees 
of  Hard- 
ness. 

Volume 
of  Soap 
solu- 
tion. 

CaC03 
per 
100,000 

Degrees 
of  Hard- 
ness. 

C.C. 

C.C. 

C.C. 

07 

o-oo 

o-oo 

1-3 

0-95 

0-67 

1-9 

1-82 

1-27 

0-8 

0-16 

O'll 

•4 

I'll 

078 

2-0 

1-95 

1-37 

0-9 

032 

0-22 

•5 

1-27 

0-89 

•1 

2-08 

1-46 

1-0 

0-48 

0-34 

•6 

1-43 

i-oo 

•2 

2'21 

1-55 

•1 

0-63 

0-44 

7 

1-56 

1-09 

•3 

2'34 

1-64 

•2 

079 

0-55 

•8 

1-69 

1-18 

•4 

2'47 

173 

•  Each  degree  of  hardness  Indicates  one  grain  of  CaCO,  per  gallon. 


tVATER    ANALYSIS    TABLES. 


8f 


TABLES  REQUIRED  IN  WATER  ANALYSIS.     TABLE  VII. — continued. 


Volume 
of  Soap 
solu- 
tion. 

CaC03 
per 
100,000 

Degrees 
of  Hard- 
ness.* 

Volume 
of  Soap 
solu- 
tion. 

CaC03 
per 
100,000 

Degrees 
of  Hard- 
ness. 

Volume 
of  Soap 
solu- 
tion. 

CaC03 
per 
100,000 

Degrees 
of  Hard- 
ness. 

C.C. 

c.c. 

C.C. 

2-5 

2-60 

1-82 

7-1 

9-00 

6-30 

117 

15-95 

11-17 

•6 

273 

1-91 

•2 

914 

6-40 

•8 

16-11 

11-28 

7 

2-86 

2-00 

•3 

9-29 

6-50 

•9 

16-27 

11-39 

•8 

2-99 

2'09 

•4 

9-43 

6-60 

12-0 

16-43 

11-50 

•9 

3-12 

2-18 

•5 

9-57 

6-70 

•1 

16-59 

11-61 

3-0 

3-25 

2-28 

•6 

971 

6-80 

•2 

1675 

11-73 

•1 

3-38 

2-37 

7 

9-86 

6-90 

•3 

16-90 

11-83 

•2 

3-51 

2-46 

•8 

10-00 

7-00 

•4 

17-06 

11-94 

•3 

3-64 

2-55 

•9 

10-15 

7-11 

•5 

17-22 

12-05 

•4 

377 

2-64 

8-0 

10-30 

7-21 

•6 

17-38 

12-17 

•5 

3-90 

273 

•1 

10-45 

7-32 

7 

17-54 

12-28 

•6 

4-03 

2-82 

•2 

10-60 

7-42 

•8 

1770 

12-39 

7 

4-16 

2-91 

•3 

1075 

7-53 

•9 

17-86 

12-50 

•8 

4-29 

3-00 

•4 

10-90 

7-63 

13-0 

18-02 

12-61 

•9 

4-43 

3'10 

'5 

11-05 

774 

•1 

18-17 

1272 

4-0 

4-57 

3-20 

•6 

11-20 

7-84 

•2 

18-33 

12-83 

•1 

471 

3'30 

7 

11-35 

7-95 

•3 

18-49 

12-94 

•2 

4-86 

3-40 

•8 

11-50 

8-05 

•4 

18-65 

13-06 

•3 

5-00 

3-50 

•9 

11-65 

8-16 

•5 

18-81 

13-17 

•4 

5-14 

3-60 

9-0 

11-80 

8-26 

•6 

18-97 

13-28 

•5 

5-29 

370 

•1 

11-95 

8-37 

7 

19-13 

13-39 

•6 

5-43 

3'80 

•2 

12-11 

8-48 

•8 

19-29 

13-50 

7 

5-57 

3-90 

•3 

12-26 

8-58 

•9 

19-44 

13-61 

•8 

571 

4-00 

•4 

12-41 

8-69 

14-0 

19-60 

1372 

•9 

5-86 

4-10 

•5 

12-56 

879 

•1 

1976 

13-83 

5-0 

6-00 

4-20 

•6 

12-71 

8-90 

•2 

19-92 

13-94 

•1 

614 

4'30 

7 

12-86 

9-00 

•3 

20-08 

14-06 

•2 

6-29 

4-40 

•8 

13-01 

9-11 

•4 

20-24 

14-17 

•3 

6-43 

4'50 

•9 

1316 

9-21 

•5 

20-40 

14-28 

•4 

6-57 

4'60 

lO'O 

13-31 

9-32 

•6 

20-56 

14-39 

•5 

671 

470 

•1 

13-46 

9-42 

7 

2071 

14-50 

•6 

6-86 

4-80 

•2 

13-61 

9-53 

•8 

20-87 

14-61 

7 

7-00 

4-90 

•3 

1376 

9-63 

•9 

21-03 

1472 

•8 

7-14 

5-00 

•4 

13-91 

974 

15-0 

21-19 

14-83 

•9 

7-29 

5-10 

•5 

14-06 

9-84 

•1 

21-35 

14-95 

6-0 

7-43 

5-20 

•6 

14-21 

9-95 

•2 

21-51 

15-06 

•1 

7-57 

5-30 

7 

14-37 

10-06 

•3 

21-68 

15-18 

•2 

771 

5-40 

•8 

14-52 

10-16 

•4 

21-85 

15-30 

•3 

7-86 

5-50 

•9 

14-68 

10-28 

•5 

22-02 

15-41 

•4 

8-00 

5-60 

iro 

14-84 

10-39 

•6 

22-18 

15-53 

•5 

8-14 

570 

•i 

15-00 

10-50 

•7 

22-35 

15-65 

•6 

8-29 

5-80 

•2 

15-16 

10-61 

•8 

22-52 

15-76 

7 

8-43 

5-90 

•3 

15-32 

1072 

•9 

22-69 

15-88 

•8 

8-57 

6-00 

•4 

15-48 

10-84 

16'0 

22-86 

16-00 

•9 

871 

6-10 

•5 

15-63 

10-94 

7-0 

8-86 

6-20 

•6 

1579 

11-05 

*  Each  degree  of  hardness  indicates  one  grain  of  CaC03  per  gallon. 


88 


NITRATES    IN    WATER. 


TABLES  REQUIRED  IN  WATER  ANALYSIS — continued. 
VIII.   Clark's  Table  of  Hardness  of  Water. 


Peprees  of 
Hardness. 

Measures 
of  Soap 
solution. 

Differences 
fortlie  next  1° 
of  Hardness. 

Decrees  of 
Hardness. 

Measures 
of  >oap 
solution. 

Differences 
fo°  tlii-  next  1° 
of  Hardness. 

0  (distilled 

8 

17-5 

1-9 

water) 

1-4 

1-8 

9 

19'4 

T9 

1 

3-2 

2-2 

10 

21-3 

1-8 

2 

5'4 

2-2 

11 

23-1 

1-8 

3 

7'6 

2-0 

12 

24-9 

1-8 

4 

9-6 

2-0 

13 

267 

1-8 

5 

11  -6 

2-0 

14 

28-5 

1-8 

6 

13-6 

2-0 

15 

30-3 

17 

7 

15'6 

1-9 

16 

32-0 

Each  measure  equals  10  grains,  the  quantity  of  water  operated  niton  equals  1000  grains, 
and  each  "  degree  of  hardness"  indicates  1  grain  of  calcic  carbonate  per  gallon. 


THE  DETERMINATION  OF  NITRATES  IN  WATER  BY 
PHENOL-DISULPHONIG  ACID. 

(SprengeFs  method  modified.) 
Solutions  required. 

(1)  Phenol- disulphonic  Acid. — Mix  together  2  parts  by  measure  of 
phenol,*  liquefied  by  heat,  and  5  parts  of  pure  concentrated  sulphuric 
acid,  and  heat  in  a  porcelain  basin  on  the  water-bath  for  about  8 
hours,   with  occasional  stirring.     When  cool,  add    l£  volumes  of 
water  and  i  volume  strong  hydrochloric  acid  to  each  volume  of 
the  phenol -disulphonic  acid. 

Convenient  quantities  are  80  c.c.  phenol,  200  c.c.  H2S04 ;  420  c.c. 
water  and  140  c.c.  HC1,  producing  840  c.c.  of  a  light  brown  solution, 
which  is  ready  for  immediate  use. 

(2)  Standard  Potassium  iMtrate. — 0'0722  gram  KN03  crystals  are 
dissolved  in  a  litre  of  water.t 

10  c.c.  =  0*0001  gram  N,  or  1  part  of  N  in  100,000  of  water  when 
10  c.c.  are  evaporated. 

(3)  10%  ammonia  (1  vol.  '880  +  2  vols.  water);  or  potash  solution, 
made  by  dissolving  330  grams  stick  potash  in  one  litre  of  water. 

About  15  c.c.  of  either  of  the  above  to  be  used  for  each  residue. 

The  determination  is  made  as  follows  : — 10  c.c.  of  the  water  under 
examination  and  10  c.c.  standard  KN03  are  pipetted  into  15  c.c. 
beakers  and  evaporated  nearly  to  dry  ness  on  a  hot  iron  plate,  the 

*  Calvert's  No.  2  medical  carbolic  acid  answers  well. 

t  Or  dissolve  0'7217  g»am  KNO3  in  a  litre  of  distilled  water.  1  c.c.  of  this  may 
be  used  for  a  standard,  but  it  is  better  to  dilute  50  c.c.  to  500  c.c.  and  measure  out 
10  c.c.  of  the  latter  for  each  set  of  determinations. 


NITRATES    IN    WATER.  89 

operation  being  completed  on  the  top  of  the  water-oven.  To  each 
residue  1  c.c.  of  the  phenol -disulphonic  acid  solution  is  added,  and 
the  latter  brought  into  contact  v/ith  the  whole  of  the  residue  in 
each  beaker.  This  is  done  simply  by  rotating  the  beaker,  held  in 
an  inclined  position,  until  the  entire  residue  has  been  moistened  : 
no  stirring  rod  is  required.  The  beakers  are  then  left  on  the  top 
of  the  waier-oven  for  15  minutes  and  at  the  end  of  that  time  are 
at  once  filled  up  with  cold  water  and  removed  to  the  working- 
bench,  if  a  number  of  residues  are  being  treated  simultaneously. 
The  standard  solution  is  then  rinsed  into  a  100  c.c.  graduated 
cylinder,  a  slight  excess  (about  15  c.c.)  of  10%  ammonia  or  of  caustic 
potash  solution  added,  the  100  c.c.  made  up  by  the  addition  of 
water,  and  the  yellow  liquid  transferred  to  a  Nessler  glass  (6  x  1|  ins.). 
Each  of  the  other  beakers  is  then  successively  treated  in  the  same 
way  and  comparison  made  with  the  standard  as  in  Nesslerizing. 
The  colours  are  best  compared  when  the  Nessler  glasses  are  held 
side  by  side  at  a  short  distance  above  a  thick  white  filter  paper. 

The  results  obtained  with  the  aid  of  Table  IX.  are  only  approxi- 
mate when  more  than  about  1'5  parts  of  nitric  nitrogen  per 
100,000  of  water  are  present.  In  all  cases  where  the  nitric  nitrogen 
exceeds  1-5  parts  per  100,000,  it  is  necessary  to  make  a  second 
determination,  using  such  a  volume  of  water  as  to  give  a  colour 
very  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  standard.*  Thus,  if  a  water  showed 
2  parts  of  nitric  nitrogen  per  100,000,  5  c.c.  should  be  evaporated 
to  dryness  and  treated  as  before  ;  one  giving  4  parts  would  really 
contain  decidedly  more,  and  20  c.c.  of  the  sample  should  be  trans- 
ferred to  a  100  c.c.  measuring  fla&k,  diluted  to  the  mark  with  water, 
and  10  c.c.  of  the  thoroughly  mixed  solution  (  =  2  c.c.  original  water) 
evaporated  down  for  a  fresh  determination.  In  the  case  of  very 
good  waters,  the  solution  and  washings  should  be  kept  as  small  as 
possible,  since  a  portion  of  the  standard  100  c.c.  will  have  to  be 
poured  into  the  cylinder  in  order  to  match  the  colours.  Suppose 
that  0'25  part  of  nitric  nitrogen  is  thus  shown,  then  40  c.c.  of  the 
water  are  measured  into  a  larger  beaker,  evaporated  to  a  small 
bulk,  rinsed  into  a  small  beaker  and  evaporated  to  dryness,  etc.,  as 
above  ;  or  20  c.c.  of  the  water  may  be  taken  and  compared  with  a 
standard  made  by  using  only  5  c.c.  of  the  KN03  solution.  (This 
method  is  inapplicable  in  the  presence  of  thiocyanates  t). 

Chamot,  Pratt  and  Red  field  J  have  recently  made  a  study  of  this 
method,  and  their  results  may  briefly  be  summarized  as  follows  : — 

A  modified  phenol-sulphonic  acid  method.— Preparation  of 
reagents  required. 

Phenol-disulphonic  acid. — Dissolve  25  gm.  of  pure  white  phenol 
in  150  c.c.  of  pure  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  add  75  c.c.  of  fuming 
sulphuric  acid  (13%S03),  stir  well,  and  heat  for  2  hours  at  about  100°  C. 

*  If  the  second  experiment  is  to  be  made  the  same  day,  the  same  standard,  if 
covered  with  a  beaker,  can  be  used  again. 

t  See  H.  Silvester,  Journ.  Soc.  Chem.  Ind.,  1912,  31,  95. 
t  The  Chemical  News,  1911, 104,  p.  146,  et  seq. 


90  NITRATES    IN    WATBlt. 

Standard  silver  sulphate.— 4-3969  gm.  of  silver  sulphate  (free 
from  nitrate)  to  the  litre. 

1  c.c.  =  l  c.c.  of  standard  AgN03  (1'6486  gm.  per  litre) 
equivalent  to  O'OOl  gram  chlorine. 

Method  of  procedure.— First  determine  the  alkalinity,  the 
chlorine  and  nitrite  content,  and  the  colour  of  the  sample.  Should 
the  colour  be  high,  decolorize  with  "aluminium  cream." 

Measure  out  such  a  volume  of  the  water  (100  c.c.  or  less)  as  will 
contain  about  1  part  of  nitric  nitrogen  per  100,000,  fairly  low 
colorimeter  readings  having  been  found  most  reliable.  Add 
sufficient  N/25  or  N/50  sulphuric  acid  barely  to  neutralize  the 
alkalinity,  then  enough  standard  silver  sulphate  solution  to  pre- 
cipitate all  but  0'5  mgm.  of  the  chlorine.  Heat  to  boiling,  add  a 
little  aluminium  cream,  filter,  and  wash  with  small  amounts  of 
hot  water.  Evaporate  the  filtrates  to  dryness,  add  2  c.c.  of  the 
disulphonic  acid  reagent,  rubbing  with  a  glass  rod  to  ensure  intimate 
contact.  Should  the  residue  be  compact  or  vitreous  in  appearance 
from  the  presence  of  much  magnesium  or  iron,  place  the  evaporator 
on  the  water-bath  for  a  few  minutes.  Dilute  with  water  and  add 
slowly  KOH  solution  (10-12  normal)  until  the  maximum  colour  is 
developed.  Transfer  to  a  colorimeter  cylinder,  filtering  if  necessary, 
and  compare  with  a  potassium  nitrate  or  tripotassium  nitrophenol 
disulphonate  standard. 

Should  nitrites  be  present  in  excess  of  01  part  of  nitrous  nitrogen 
per  100,000,  a  slight  error  will  be  introduced.  They  should,  there- 
fore, be  removed  by  heating  the  sample  a  few  moments  with  a  few 
drops  of  hydrogen  peroxide  (free  from  nitrates),  repeatedly  added, 
or  dilute  potassium  permanganate  may  be  added  in  the  cold  until 
a  trace  of  pink  appears  and  a  correction  applied  to  the  final  nitrate 
nitrogen  reading  due  to  the  conversion  of  the  nitrites  to  nitrates. 

Directions  for  making  permanent  standards  are  given. 


NITRATES    IN    WATER. 


91 


TABLES  KEQTIIRED  IN  WATER  ANALYSIS — continued. 

IX.  Estimation  of  Nitrogen  as  Nitrates  by  SprengeFs  Method  (for  waters 
containing  more  than  one  part  of  N  in  100,000). 


No.  of  c.c.  of 

yellow  solu- 
tion equal  to 
the  standard 
100  c.c. 

Nitrogen  as  Nitrates. 

No.  of  c.c.  of 
yellow  solu- 
tion equal  to 
the  standard 
100  c.c. 

Nitrogen  as  Nitrates. 

Parts  per 
100,000. 

Grains  per 
gallon. 

Parts  per 
100,000. 

Grains  per 
gallon. 

100 

1-00 

070 

50 

2-00 

1-40 

95 

1-05 

074 

48 

2-08 

1-46 

90 

I'll 

078 

46 

2-17 

1-52 

85 

1-18 

0-83 

45 

2-22 

1-55 

80 

1-25 

0-88 

44 

2'27 

1-59 

78 

1-28 

0-90 

42 

2-38 

1-67 

76 

1-32 

0-92 

40 

2'50 

175 

75 

1-33 

0-93 

38 

2-63 

1-84 

74 

1-35 

0-95 

36 

278 

1-95 

72 

1-39 

0-97 

35 

2-86 

2-00 

70 

1-43 

1-00 

34 

2-94 

2-06 

68 

T47 

1-03 

32 

3-13 

2-19 

66 

1-51 

1-06 

30 

3-33 

2-33 

65 

1-54 

1-08 

28 

3-57 

2-50 

64 

1-55 

1-09 

26 

3-85 

270 

62 

1-61 

1*18 

25 

4-00 

2'80 

60 

1-67 

117 

24 

4-17 

2-92 

58 

172 

1-20 

22 

4-55 

3-19 

56 

178 

1-25 

20 

5-00 

3-50 

55 

1-82 

1-27 

18 

5-55 

3-89 

54 

1-85 

1-30 

16 

6-25 

4'38 

52 

1-92 

1-34 

15 

6-67 

4-67 

X.   Table  for  the  Conversion  of  Parts  per  100,000  into  Grains  per 
Gallon. 


Parts  per 
100,000. 

Grains  per 
gallon. 

Parts  per 
100,000. 

Grains  per 
gallon. 

Parts  per 
100,000. 

Grains  per 
gallon. 

Parts  per 
100,000. 

Grains  per 
gallon. 

1 

07 

9 

6-3 

17 

11-9 

25 

17-5 

2 

1-4 

10 

7-0 

18 

12-6 

26 

18-2 

3 

2-1 

11 

77 

19 

13-3 

27 

18'9 

4 

2-8 

12 

8-4 

20 

14-0 

28 

19-6 

5 

3-5 

13 

9-1 

21 

147 

29 

20-3 

6 

4'2 

14 

9-8 

22 

15-4 

30 

21-0 

7 

4-9 

15 

10-5 

23 

16-1 

31 

217 

8 

5'6 

16 

11-2 

24 

16-8 

32 

22-4 

PARTS    PER    100,000    INTO    GRAINS    PER    GALLON 


TABLES  REQUIRED  IN  WATER  ANALYSIS.     TABLE  ^.—continued. 


Paits  per 
100,000. 

Grains  per 
gallon. 

Parts  per 
100,000. 

Grains  per 
gallon. 

Parts  per 
100,000. 

Grains  per 
gallon. 

Parts  per 
100,000. 

Grains  per 
gallon. 

33 

23-1 

78 

54-6 

123 

86-1 

168 

117-6 

34 

23-8 

79 

55-3 

124 

86-8 

169 

118  3 

35 

24-5 

80 

56-0 

125 

87-5 

170 

119-0 

36 

25-2 

81 

567 

126 

88-2 

171 

119-7 

37 

25'9 

82 

57-4 

127 

88-9 

172 

120-4 

38 

26-6 

83 

581 

128 

89-6 

173 

1211 

39 

27'3 

84 

58-8 

129 

90-3 

174 

121-8 

40 

280 

85 

59'5 

130 

91-0 

175 

122-5 

41 

287 

86 

60-2 

131 

917 

176 

123-2 

42 

29-4 

87 

60-9 

132 

92-4 

177 

123-9 

43 

30-1 

88 

61-6 

133 

931 

178 

124-6 

44 

30-8 

89 

62'3 

134 

93-8 

179 

125-3 

45 

31-5 

90 

63-0 

135 

94-5 

180 

126-0 

46 

32-2 

91 

637 

136 

95-2 

181 

1267 

47 

32-9 

92 

64-4 

137 

95'9 

182 

127-4 

48 

33-6 

93 

65-1 

138 

96-6 

183 

1281 

49 

34'3 

94 

65-8 

139 

97-3 

184 

128-8 

50 

35-0 

95 

66-5 

140 

98-0 

185 

129-5 

51 

357 

96 

67-2 

141 

987 

186 

130-2 

52 

36-4 

97 

67-9 

142 

99-4 

187 

130-9 

53 

37-1 

98 

68-6 

143 

1001 

188 

131-6 

54 

37-8 

99 

69-3 

144 

100-8 

189 

132-3 

55 

38-5 

100 

70-0 

145 

101-5 

190 

133-0 

56 

39  2 

101 

707 

146 

102-2 

191 

1337 

57 

39-9 

102 

71-4 

147 

102-9 

192 

134-4 

58 

40-6 

103 

72-1 

148 

103-6 

193 

1351 

59 

41-3 

104 

72-8 

149 

104-3 

194 

135-8 

60 

42-0 

105 

73-5 

150 

105-0 

195 

136-5 

61 

427 

106 

74-2 

151 

1057 

196 

137-2 

62 

43-4 

107 

74-9 

152 

.06-4 

197 

137-9 

63 

44-1 

108 

75-6 

153 

1071 

198 

138-6 

64 

44-8 

109 

76-3 

154 

107-8 

199 

139-3 

65 

45-5 

110 

77-0 

155 

108-5 

200 

140-0 

66 

46-2 

111 

777 

156 

109-2 

201 

1407 

67 

46-9 

112 

78-4 

157 

109-9 

202 

141-4 

68 

47-6 

113 

79-1 

158 

110-6 

203 

142-1 

69 

48-3 

114 

79-8 

159 

111-3 

204 

142-8 

70 

49-0 

115 

80-5 

160 

112-0 

205 

143-5 

71 

497 

116 

81-2 

161 

1127 

206 

144-2 

72 

50-4 

117 

81-9 

162 

113-4 

207 

144-9 

73 

511 

118 

82-6 

163 

114-1 

208 

145-6 

74 

51-8 

119 

83-3 

164 

114-8 

209 

146-3 

75 

52-5 

120 

84-0 

165 

115-5 

210 

147-0 

76 

53-2 

121 

847 

166 

116-2 

211 

147-7 

77 

53'9 

122 

85-4 

167 

116-9 

212 

148-4 

PARTS    PER    100,000    INTO    GRAINS    PER    GALLON.  93 

TABLES  REQUIRED  IN  WATER  ANALYSIS.    TABLE  X. — continued. 


Parts  per 

100,000. 

Grains  pei 
gallon. 

Parts  per 

100,000. 

Grains  per 
gallon. 

Parts  per 

100,000. 

Grains  per 
gallon. 

Parts  per 
100,000. 

Grains  per 
gallon. 

213 

149-1 

223 

156-1 

233 

163-1 

243 

170-1 

214 

149-8 

224 

156-8 

234 

163-8 

244 

170-8 

215 

150-5 

225 

157-5 

235 

164-5 

245 

171-5 

216 

151-2 

226 

158  2 

236 

165-2 

246 

172-2 

217 

151-9 

227 

158-9 

237 

165-9 

247 

172-9 

218 

152-6 

228 

159-6 

238 

166-6 

248 

173-6 

219 

153-3 

229 

160-3 

239 

167-3 

249 

174-3 

220 

154-0 

230 

161-0 

240 

168-0 

250 

175-0 

221  - 

1547 

231 

1617 

241 

168-7 

222 

155-4 

!     232 

162-4 

242 

169-4 

CALCULATION  OF  THE  RESULTS  OF  WATER  ANALYSIS. 


Substance 
estimated. 

Quantity  of  Water  taken. 

To  get  Grains  per  gallon. 

Logarithms. 

NasHN03(Crum) 

NH3  (copper  zinc) 
,,    (aluminium) 

250  c.c. 

100  c.c. 
50  c.c. 

*c.c.   of  NO  at  N.T.P.x 
•1751  =N 
grams  of  NH3x  575'73  =  N 
„            X  1151-46  =  N 

1-243  2861 

2-760  2200 
3-061  2500 

0  absorbed 

250  c.c.  +10  c.c.  K2Mn208 

M8(^F)« 

Total  solids 

250  c.c.  +15  c.c.  K2Mn208 
250  c.c. 

\       S       / 

gram  sx  280 

2-447  1580 

*  Or  thus.    Let  t>  =  vol.  of  NO  obtained  from  250  c.c.  of  the  water. 
6=  height  of  Bar. 

w—  tension  of  aqueous  vapour  at  the  observed  temperature  (see 
Table  I.). 


Then  N  in  grains  per  gallon  =v  x 


For  logs,  of 


•0012507 


760(1  + '00367  «) 


x  (6  -  w)  x  140. 


for  different  values  of  t  see  Table  II. 


760(1+ -003670 
Log.  140  =  '2-146  1280. 

t  S  =  c.c.  of  Na2S203  corresponding  to  10  c.c.  K2Mn208. 
W=  ,,  „       required  by  the  water  under  examination. 


94     THRESH'S  SOLUTION  OF  STARCH  AND  POTASSIUM  IODIDB. 

THRESH'S  SOLUTION  OF  STARCH  AND  POTASSIUM  IODIDE. 

This  solution  is  used  by  Dr    Thresh  in   his  method    for    the 
determination  of  nitrites  in  potable  waters.* 
It  is  made  as  follows  :— 

Starch  in  powder      ....  0'2  gram. 
Caustic  potash           ....  1     „ 

Potassium  iodide       ....  2  grams. 

Water        ......  200  c.c. 

Add  the  starch  to  10  c.c.  of  water,  and  when  uniformly  diffused 
add  the  caustic  potash.  Dissolve  without  the  aid  of  heat  and  add 
the  remainder  of  the  water  and  the  potassium  iodide.  Strain  or 
filter.  This  solution  keeps  for  months  without  appreciable  change. 

A  useful  test  may  be  carried  out  as  follows  :  — 

Shake  the  sample  of  water  vigorously  in  a  bottle  only  partially 
filled,  to  saturate  with  air  :  pour  50  c.c.  into  a  Nessler  cylinder  and 
add  1  c.c.  of  the  above  solution  and  then  1  c.c.  of  dilute  sulphuric 
acid  (1  vol.  acid  to  3  vols.  water).  Stir.  Assuming  the  temperature 
to  be  about  60°  F.,  if  a  dark  blue  tint  develops  instantaneously  the 
water  contains  more  than  O'l  part  per  100,000  of  nitrous  nitrogen. 
If  it  becomes  blue  in  a  few  seconds  it  contains  about  O'Ol  per 
100,000.  If  it  requires  more  than  ten  seconds  to  develop  it  con- 
tains less  than  this  amount. 

EXAMPLE  OF  THE  DETERMINATION  OF  NITRATES  BY  CRUM'S  METHOD. 

0'5  gram  of  a  substance  containing  nitrate  of  soda  treated  by 
(Drum's  method  gave  13'6  c.c.  of  NO  measured  at  8°  C.  and  737  mm. 
Bar.  To  find  the  percentages  of  nitrogen  and  of  sodium  nitrate 
present. 

Bar.  737  mm. 
Tension  of  aqueous  vapour  at  8°  C.  =     8  mm.  by  Table  I. 

Pressure  on  the  dry  gas  729  mm. 

NO  contains  half  its  volume  of  nitrogen. 

TTT     •     1.4.         C  -4.  V      ,,  ^  '0012507 

Weight  of  nitrogen^-  (i-^ 


6-8  x  729  x  -0012507 


760(1 +  '00367x8) 
log.  6-8=0-83251 
„   729  =  286273 
log.  fraction— by  Table  II.          =  6-20379 

3-89903  =  0-007926  gram 

Nitrogen  in  0'5  gram 
•007926  x  200=  I  '59%  nitrogen 
and  by  logs.  1'59  nitrogen  =  9*65%  sodium  nitrate. 

*  Chemical  News,  1890,  vol.  62,  p.  204. 


WATER   AND    SEWAGE    ANALYSES.  95 

WATER  AND  SEWAGE  EXAMINATION  RESULTS. 
(British  Association  Keport,  1899.) 

The  Committee  appointed  by  the  British  Association  to  devise  a 
uniform  system  of  recording  the  results  of  the  chemical  and 
bacteriological  examination  of  water  and  sewage  reported  as 
follows : — 

It  is  desirable  that  results  of  analysis  should  be  expressed  in 
parts  per  100,000,  except  in  the  case  of  dissolved  gases,  when  these 
should  be  stated  as  c.c.  of  gas  at  0°  C.  and  760  mm.  in  1  litre 
of  water.  This  method  of  recording  results  is  in  accordance  with 
that  suggested  by  the  Committee  appointed  in  1887  to  confer  with 
the  Committee  of  the  American  Association  for  the  advancement 
of  science,  with  a  view  to  forming  a  uniform  system  of  recording 
the  results  of  water  analysis. 

It  is  suggested  that  in  the  case  of  all  nitrogen  compounds  the 
results  be  expressed  as  parts  of  nitrogen  per  100,000,  including  the 
ammonia  expelled  on  boiling  with  alkaline  permanganate,  which 
should  be  termed  albuminoid  nitrogen.  The  nitrogen  will  therefore 
be  returned  as : 

(1)  Ammoniacal  nitrogen  from  free  and  saline  ammonia. 

(2)  Nitrous  nitrogen  from  nitrites. 

(3)  Nitric  nitrogen  from  nitrates. 

(4)  Organic  nitrogen  (either  by  Kjeldahl  or  by  combustion,  but 

the  process  used  should  be  stated). 

(5)  Albuminoid  nitrogen. 

The  total  nitrogen  of  all  lf  will  be  the  sum  of  the  first  four 
determinations . 

The  Committee  are  of  opinion  that  the  percentage  of  nitrogen 
oxidized — that  is,  the  ratio  of  (2)  and  (3)  to  (1)  and  (4) — gives 
sometimes  a  useful  measure  of  the  stage  of  purification  of  a 
particular  sample.  The  purification  effected  by  a  process  will  be 
measured  by  the  amount  of  oxidized  nitrogen  as  compared  with  the 
total  amount  of  nitrogen  existing  in  the  crude  sewage. 

In  raw  sewage  and  in  effluents  containing  suspended  matter,  it 
is  also  desirable  to  determine  how  much  of  the  organic  nitrogen  is 
present  in  the  suspended  matter. 

In  sampling,  the  Committee  suggest  that  the  bottles  should  be 
filled  nearly  completely  with  the  liquid,  only  a  small  air-bubble 
being  allowed  to  remain  in  the  neck  of  the  bottle.  The  time  at 
which  a  sample  is  drawn,  as  well  as  the  time  at  which  its  analysis 
is  begun,  should  be  noted.  An  effluent  should  be  drawn  to 
correspond  as  nearly  as  possible  with  the  original  sewage,  and  both 
it  and  the  sewage  should  be  taken  in  quantities  proportional  to  the 
rate  of  flow  when  that  varies  (e.g.  in  the  emptying  of  a  filter-bed). 

In  order  to  avoid  the  multiplication  of  analyses,  the  attendant 
at  a  sewage  works  (or  any  other  person  who  draws  the  samples) 
might  be  provided  with  sets  of  twelve  or  twenty-four  stoppered 


96  WATER   AND    SEWAGB   ANALYSES. 

quarter- Winch  ester  bottles,  one  of  which  should  be  filled  every 
hour  or  every  two  hours,  and  on  the  label  of  each  bottle  the  rate  of 
flow  at  the  time  should  be  written.  When  the  bottles  reach  the 
laboratory,  quantities  would  be  taken  fr«  m  each  proportional  to 
these  rates  of  flow  and  mixed  together,  by  which  means  a  fair 
average  sample  for  the  twenty-four  hours  would  be  obtained. 

The  Committee  were  unable  to  suggest  a  method  of  reporting 
bacterial  results,  including  incubator  tests,  that  would  be  likely  to 
be  acceptable  to  all  workers. 

The  Committee  consisted  of  Professor  W.  Ramsay  (chairman),  Sir 
W.  Crookes,  Professors  F.  Clowes,  P.  F.  Frankland,  and  R.  Boyce, 
and  Dr  Rideal  (secretary). 


STANDARDS  FOR  SEWAGE  EFFLUENTS. 

Various  standards  of  purity  or  limits  of  impurity  of  sewage 
effluents  have  from  time  to  time  been  put  forward.  These,  however, 
have  been  superseded  by  the  recommendations  given  in  the  Fifth 
Report  of  the  Royal  Commission  on  Sewage  Disposal.*  In  this  the 
Commissioners  report  that : — "  The  experiments  which  we  have 
already  made  show  that  the  mere  estimation  of  the  amount  of 
organic  matter  in  an  effluent  does  not,  by  itself,  afford  a  sufficiently 
reliable  index  as  to  the  effect  which  that  effluent  will  have  on  any 
stream  into  which  it  may  be  discharged  "  (par.  320).  Further  on  we 
read  :  "According  to  our  present  knowledge,  an  effluent  can  best  be 
judged  by  ascertaining,  first,  the  amount  of  suspended  matter  which  it 
contains,  and,  second,  the  rate  at  which  the  effluent,  after  the  removal 
of  the  suspended  solids,  takes  up  oxygen  from  water." 

The  recommendations  given  are  as  follows  : — 

"For  the  guidance  of  local  authorities,  we  may  provisionally  state 
that  an  effluent  would  generally  be  satisfactory  if  it  complied  with 
the  following  conditions  : — 

(1)  That  it  should  not  contain  more  than  3  parts  per  100,000  of 
suspended  matter ;  and 

(2)  That,  after  being  filtered  through  paper,  it  should  not  absorb 
more  than 

(a)  0*5  part  by  weight  per  100,000  of  dissolved  or  atmospheric 
oxygen  in  24  hours. 

(6)  TO  part  by  weight  per  100,000  of  dissolved  or  atmospheric 
oxygen  in  48  hours  ;  or 

(c)  1'5  part  by  weight  per  100,000  of  dissolved  or  atmospheric 
oxygen  in  5  days." 

*  Cd.  4278.    Issued  in  1908, 


DISSOLVED    OXYGEN    IN    DISTILLED    WATER. 


97 


TABLE  GIVING  THE  AMOUNTS  OF  DISSOLVED  OXYGEN  IN  DISTILLED 
WATER  AT  VARIOUS  TEMPERATURES  (BAR.  760  mm.).* 


Temperature 

°C. 

Oxygen 
(parts  per 
100,000). 

Temperature 
"C. 

Oxygen 
(parts  per 
100,000). 

Temperature 

°C. 

Oxygen 
(parts  per 
100,000). 

0 

1-42 

11 

1'09 

21 

0-88 

1 

1-39 

12 

1-07 

22 

0-87 

2 

1-36 

13 

1-04 

23 

0-85 

3 

1-32 

14 

1-02 

24 

0-84 

4 

1-28 

15 

1-00 

25 

0-82 

5 

1'24 

16 

0-98 

26 

0-81 

6 

1-22 

17 

0-96 

27 

0-80 

7 

1-19 

18 

0-94 

28 

0-80 

8 

1-17 

19 

0-92 

29 

079 

9 

I'M 

20 

0-90 

30 

078 

10 

I'll 

*  Calculated  from  Roscoe  and  Lunt's  table  (Trans.  Chem.  Soc.,  1889,  569)  for 
temperatures  from  5°-30°  C.  The  values  given  for  00-40  are  based  on  determina- 
tions by  Winkler's  process. 


98 


TABLES    FOR    BEER    ANALYSIS. 


TABLES  REQUIRED  IN  THE  ANALYSIS  OF  BEER. 

Spirit  Indication,  with  corresponding  Degrees  of  Gravity 
lost  in  Malt  Worts,  by  the  "Distillation  Process." 


Degrees  of 
Spirit  Indi- 
cation. 

•o 

•1 

•2 

•3 

•4 

•5 

•6 

•7 

•8 

•9 

0 

o-o 

0-3 

0-6 

0-9 

1-2 

1-5 

1-8 

21 

2-4 

27 

1 

3-0 

3-3 

3-7 

4-1 

4-4 

4-8 

51 

5-5 

5-9 

6-2 

2 

6'6 

7-0 

7-4 

7-8 

8-2 

8-6 

9-0 

9-4 

9'8 

10-2 

3 

107 

11-1 

11-5 

12-0 

12-4 

12-9 

13-3 

13-8 

14-2 

147 

4 

151 

15-5 

16-0 

16-4 

16'8 

17-3 

177 

18-2 

18-6 

191 

5 

19-5 

19-9 

20-4 

20-9 

21'3 

21-8 

22-2 

227 

231 

23-6 

6 

24-1 

24-6 

25'0 

25-5 

26-0 

26-4 

26'9 

27-4 

27-8 

28-3 

7 

28-8 

29-2 

297 

30-2 

307 

31-2 

317 

32-2 

327 

33-2 

8 

337 

34-3 

34-8 

35-4 

35-9 

36-5 

37-0 

37'5 

38'0 

38-6 

9 

39-1 

39-7 

40-2 

407 

41-2 

417 

42-2 

427 

43-2 

437 

10 

44-2 

44-7 

45-1 

45-6 

46-0 

46-5 

47-0 

47-5 

48-0 

48-5 

11 

49-0 

49-6 

501 

50-6 

51-2 

517 

52-2 

527 

53-3 

53-8 

12 

54-3 

54-9 

55-4 

55-9 

56-4 

56-9 

57-4 

57-9 

58-4 

59-9 

13 

59-4 

60-0 

60-5 

61-1 

61-6 

62-2 

627 

63-3 

63-8 

64-3 

14 

64-8 

65-4 

65-9 

66-5 

671 

67'6 

68-2 

687 

69-3 

69-9 

15 

70-5 

71'1 

717 

72-3 

72-9 

73'5 

741 

747 

75-3 

75-9 

Spirit  Indication,  with  corresponding  Degrees  of  Gravity 
lost  in  Malt  Worts,  by  the  ' '  Evaporation  Process. " 


Degrees  of 
Spirit  Indi- 
cation. 

0 

•1 

•2 

•3 

•4 

•5 

•6 

•7 

•8 

•9 

0 

•3 

7 

1-0 

1-4 

17 

21 

2-4 

2-8 

31 

1 

3:5 

3-8 

4-2 

4-6 

5-0 

5'4 

5-8 

6-2 

6'6 

7-0 

2 

7'4 

7-8 

8'2 

87 

91 

9'5 

9-9 

10-3 

107 

111 

3 

11-5 

11-9 

12-4 

12-8 

13-2 

13-6 

14-0 

14'4 

14-8 

15-3 

4 

15-8 

16-2 

16-6 

17-0 

17-4 

17-9 

18-4 

18-8 

19-3 

19-8 

5 

20-3 

207 

21-2 

21-6 

221 

22-5 

23-0 

23-4 

23-9 

24-3 

6 

24-8 

25-2 

25-6 

261 

26-6 

27-0 

27-5 

28-0 

28-5 

29-0 

7 

29'5 

30-0 

30-4 

30-9 

31'3 

31-8 

32-3 

32-8 

33-3 

33-8 

8 

34-3 

34-9 

35-5 

36-0 

36-6 

371 

377 

38-3 

38-8 

39-4 

9 

40-0 

40'5 

41'0 

41-5 

42-0 

42-5 

43-0 

43-5 

44-0 

44-4 

10 

44-9 

45-4 

46-0 

46-5 

471 

47-6 

48-2 

487 

49-3 

49-8 

11 

50'3 

50-9 

51'4 

51-9 

52-5 

53-0 

53-5 

54-0 

54-5 

55-0 

12 

55-6 

56-2 

567 

57-3 

57-8 

58-3 

58-9 

59-4 

59-9 

60-5 

13 

61-0 

61-6 

621 

627 

63-2 

63-8 

64-3 

64'9 

65-4 

66-0 

14 

66-5 

67-0 

67'6 

681 

687 

69-2 

69-8 

70-4 

70-9 

71-4 

15 

72-0 

TABLES    FOR    BEER    ANALYSIS. 


99 


TABLE  FOR  ASCERTAINING  THE  VALUE  OF  THE  ACETIC  ACID. 
Corresponding  Degrees  of  "Spirit  Indication" 


Excess  per  cent, 
of  Acetic  Acid 
in  the  Beer. 

•00 

•01 

•02 

•03 

•04 

•05 

•06 

•07 

•08 

•09 

•o 

•02 

•04 

•06 

•07 

•08 

•09 

•11 

•12 

•13 

•1 

V14 

•15 

•17 

•18 

•19 

•21 

•22 

•23 

•24 

•26 

•2 

•27 

•28 

•29 

•31 

•32 

•33 

•34 

•35 

•37 

•38 

•3 

•39 

•40 

•42 

•43 

•44 

•46 

•47 

•48 

•49 

•51 

•4 

•52 

•53 

•55 

•56 

•57 

•59 

•60 

•61 

•62 

•64 

•5 

•65 

•66 

•67 

•69 

•70 

•71 

•72 

•73 

•75 

•76 

•6 

•77 

•78 

•80 

•81 

•82 

•84 

•85 

•86 

•87 

•89 

•7 

•90 

•91 

•93 

•94 

•95 

•97 

•98 

•99 

1-10 

1-02 

•8 

1-03 

1-04 

1-05 

1-07 

1-08 

1-09 

1-10 

1-11 

1-13 

1-14 

•9 

1-15 

1-16 

1-18 

1-19 

1-21 

1-22 

1-23 

1-25 

1-26 

1-28 

1-0 

1-29 

T31 

1-33 

1-35 

1-36 

1-37 

1-38 

1-40 

1-41 

1-42 

TABLE  FOR  SALT  IN  BEER. 

Salt  in  Grains  per  Gallon,  corresponding  to  c.c.  of  Decinormal  AgN03.* 
25  c.c.  of  Beer  to  be  employed. 


c.c.^AgN03 

Grains  NaCI 
per  gallon. 

c.c.5AgN03 

Grains  Nad 
per  gallon. 

c.c.*AgN03 

Grains  Nad 
per  gallon. 

O'l 

1-64 

2-2 

36-04 

4-2 

68-80 

0-2 

3'28 

2-3 

37-67 

4-3 

70-43 

0-3 

4-91 

2-4 

39-31 

4-4 

72-07 

0-4 

6-55 

2-5 

40-95 

4-5 

73-71 

0-5 

8-19 

2-6 

42-59 

4-6 

75-35 

0-6 

9-83 

2-7 

44-23 

47 

76-99 

07 

11-47 

2-8 

45-86 

4-8 

78-62 

08 

1310 

2'9 

47-50 

4-9 

80-26 

0-9 

1474 

3-0 

49-14 

5:0 

81-90 

1-0 

16-38 

3'1 

5078 

5-1 

83-54 

ri 

18-02 

3'2 

52-42 

5-2 

85-18 

1-2 

19-66 

3'3 

54-05 

5-3 

86-81 

•3 

21-29 

3-4 

55-69 

5-4 

88-45 

•4 

22-93 

3-5 

57-33 

5-5 

90-09 

•5 

24-57 

3-6 

58-97 

5-6 

9173 

•6 

26-21 

37 

60-61 

5-7 

93-37 

•7 

27-85 

3-8 

62-24 

5-8 

95-00 

•8 

29-48 

3'9 

63-88 

5-9 

96-64 

1-9 

31-12 

4-0 

65-52 

6-0 

98-28 

2-0 

3276 

4-1 

67-16 

6-1 

99-92 

2-1 

34-40 

Note.— The  above  table  is  useful  in  giving  the  amount  of  NaCI  that  may  be  present, 
calculated  from  the  combined  chlorine  found.  To  obtain  the  actual  amount  of  sodium 
chloride,  the  sodium  present  must  also  be  determined. 

*  1  c.c. =0-00585  gm.  NaCI. 


100  ORIGINAL    GRAVITY    OF    BEER. 

Examples  of  the  determination  of  "  original  gravity  "  of  beer. 
I.  By  the  Distillation  Process. 
Experimental  data : — 

Sp.  gr.  of  the  spirit  distillate  at  60°  F.  .          .        989'40 
,,  „        extract  residue     „        .  .      101876 

Acidity  (calculated  as  acetic  acid)         .          .  0'15% 

Then  1000-989-40=  .        .        .        .  10  "60  spirit  indication 

0-15 -0-10*  =  0-05,    which    by    Table 

(p.  99)  shows 0'08       „  „ 

Total  10-68      „  „ 

By  Table  (p.  98)  10-68  spirit  indication  =  47 -0  +  (-8  x  -5) 

=     47  "40  degrees  of  gravity  lost 
Sp.  gr.  of  extract  residue  =  101 8'76 

1006-16  original  gravity. 

Or,  omit  taking  the  extract  gravity  and  take  that  of  the  beer 
itself,  whence  a  theoretical  extract  gravity  can  be  found  as  follows  : — 
Experimental  data  : — 

Sp.  gr.  of  the  beer  at  60°  F. .        .        .        .        1008'36 

„          „      spirit  distillate        .        .        .          989'40 
Acidity        .        .       ...        .        .        .  0'15% 

1008-36 
989-40 

18-96 
(less)  '20  (a  constant  t) 

18*76 +  1000  =  1018-76,  the  extract  gravity  deduced. 
Degrees  of  gravity  lost        47*40 
(found  as  above) 

1066-16  original  gravity. 

II.  By  the  Evaporation  Process. 
Experimental  data  : — 

Sp.  gr.  of  the  beer  at  60°  F.         .         1009'70 

„        „       extract  residue       „  .         1019'55 

Acidity  (calculated  as  acetic  acid)        .        »  0'26  % 

Then  1019-55  -  1009-70      ....   =  9'85  spirit  indication 
0-26  --10=0-16,  which  by  Table  (p.  99) 

shows  .         .       0-22      „  „ 


Total  10-07      „  „ 

*  Graham,  Hofmann  and  Redwood  calculated  that  the  normal  acidity  of  beer  is 
0-10  per  cent,  expressed  as  acetic  acid.  In  the  calculation  above  we  have  to  take 
into  consideration  only  the  acidity  in  excess  of  the  normal  amount. 

t  Representing  the  gain  in  density  by  condensation  when  the  constituents  of  beer 
are  mixed  together :  the  gain  in  density  varies  from  0'15  to  0'35,  the  average  being  0-2. 


OKIGINAL    GRAVITY    OF    B^.-SK.  101 

By  Table  (p.  98)  10'07  spirit  indication  =  44'9  +  ('7  x  '5) 
=     45  '25  degrees  of  gravity  lost 
sp.  gr.  of  extract  residue  =  1019*55 

1064-80  original  gravity. 
Note.  —  The  above  examples  are  taken  from  J.  A.  Nettleton's  Original  Gravity. 

BLUNT'S  MODIFICATION  OF  TABARIE'S  FORMULA. 
Tabarie's  formula  for  indirectly  determining  alcohol  in  beer  and 
wine  from  the  sp.  gr.  of  the  original  sample  and   of  the  boiled 
sample  made  up  to  the  volume  taken  at  the  same  temperature  is 

Q 

sp.  gr.  of  alcohol  boiled  away  =  —  - 

&b 
where  S  =  sp.  gr.  of  original  liquid 

S&=         „       boiled       „        or  "extract." 

Blunt  has  shown*  that  a  more  correct  result  is  obtained  by  using 
the  formula 

sp.  gr.  of  alcohol  boiled  away  =  1  -  (S&  -  S) 


This  is  fully  confirmed  by  Hehner,  who  found  "  that  in  all  cases 
the  results  obtained  by  subtraction  are  closer  to  those  obtained 
by  distillation  than  are  those  by  Tabarie's  formula,  and  the  results 
are  better  the  greater  the  alcoholic  strength."  t 

SPECIFIC  KOTATORY  POWER. 

The  specific  rotatory  power  of  an  optically  active  substance  in 
solution  may  be  defined  as  the  fugle  through  which  a  plane 
polarized  ray  of  light  of  definite  refrangibility  is  rotated  by  a 
column  one  decimetre  in  length  of  a  solution  containing  1  gram  of 
the  substance  in  1  c.c. 

If  the  rotation  is  observed  through  a  tube  I  decimetres  in  length, 
and  the  solution  contains  c  grams  of  substances  in  100  c.c.,  then, 
if  o  be  the  angle  of  rotation,  the  "  specitic  rotatory  power  "  is  given 
by  the  formula 

a.    100 

M=T^T 

The  ray  used  and  the  temperature  of  the  liquid  are  generally 
added,  thus  [a  J*  =  66  -6°  means  that  the  specific  rotatory  power  for 
ray  D  |  at  the  temperature  of  20°  C.  is  66'6°. 

The  specific  rotatory  power  (or  "specific  rotation")  of  liquid 
carbon  compounds  is  given  by  the  formula 


Where  I  is  the  length  of  the  observation  tube  in  decimetres,  d  is 
the  sp.  gr.  of  the  liquid  referred  to  water  at  4°  C.  as  standard,  in 
which  case  d  expresses  the  weight  in  grams  of  1  c.c. 

*  Analyst,  1891,  16,  p.  221.  t  Ibid.,  p.  223.  J  Sodium  flame. 


101  SPBOTJ-lO   ROTATORY    POWER. 


In  this  country  observations  are  commonly  made  at  a  temperature 
of  60°  F.,  but  on  the  Continent  20°  C.  is  the  "  normal  temperature  " 
of  observation.  With  many  substances,  however,  a  difference  of 
4'4°  C.  causes  but  little  difference  in  the  readings. 

Molecular  Rotation.  —  This  term  is  applied  to  the  product  of  the 
molecular  weight  (M)  and  specific  rotation  of  a  body  divided  by 
100,  and  is  represented  by  the  symbol  [M]. 


The  divisor  100  is  used  simply  to  avoid  the  use  of  inconveniently 
large  numbers.  [M]  expresses  the  rotation  which  would  result  if 
each  c.c.  of  the  solution  contained  1  gram-molecule  of  the  active 
substance  and  the  length  of  the  liquid  column  were  1  mm. 

Multirotation.  —  Freshly  prepared  solutions  of  a  number  of  the 
sugars  show  a  rotatory  power  different  from  that  of  the  same 
solution  on  standing,  undergoing  either  an  increase  or  decrease 
until  finally  a  constant  value  is  reached.  This  phenomenon  is 
termed  multirotation  or  mutarotation. 

Originally  the  term  bi-rotation  was  used,  as  the  observation  was 
made  that  a  dextrose  solution  when  freshly  prepared  gave  about 
twice  the  reading  of  the  same  solution  after  standing. 

At  the  ordinary  temperature  a  period  of  from  six  to  twenty-four 
hours  is  usually  required,  but  by  boiling  the  transformation  to  the 
stable  form  is  completed  in  a  few  minutes.*  Dextrose,  lactose,  and 
maltose  show  this  behaviour,  maltose  giving  with  a  freshly  made 
solution  a  lower  reading  than  that  observed  after  standing  for  some 
hours.  Sucrose  does  not  show  this  effect. 

Observations  are  usually  made  with  a  polarimeter,  such  as 
Laurent's  half-shadow  instrument,  for  which  homogeneous  light, 
generally  a  sodium  flame,  is  required  ;  or  with  a  Soleil-Ventzke- 
Scheibler  Colour  Saccharimeter,  which  is  adapted  for  use  with 
white  light  illumination  from  oil  or  gas  lamps  ;  or  with  a  modern 
Half  -shadow  Saccharimeter,  t  in  which  the  field  of  view  is  divided 
into  two  surfaces,  each  of  which  alternately  becomes  perfectly  dark 
as  the  analyser  is  rotated,  the  point  sought,  and  at  which  the  reading 
is  taken,  being  that  at  which  the  two  surfaces  show  exactly  the 
same  degree  of  illumination  or  partial  shadow.  White  light  is  used. 

Specific  rotatory  power  as  determined  by  the  (more  or  less 
obsolete)  Soleil-Ventzke-Scheibler  Colour  Saccharimeter  is  indicated 
by  [ojj,  where  j  is  the  transition  tint  (i.e.  from  the  blue  to  the  red), 
ana  is  the  ray  complementary  to  the  medium  yellow  or  jaune 
moyen  —  hence  the  j.  This  jaune  moyen  ray  is  the  true  medium 

*  The  same  result  is  also  attained  by  adding  a  few  drops  of  strong  ammonia  before 
making  up  the  volume  of  the  solution. 

t  In  the  latest  type  of  polarimeter,  the  optical  field  is  divided  into  3  parts  instead 
of  2,  as  in  the  half-shadow  instruments.  Such  instruments  are  more  accurate,  the 
equality  of  the  field  being  capable  of  a  more  delicate  adjustment.  These  "  have 
properly  displaced  the  colour  instruments  completely  :  the  part  of  these  in  sacchari- 
metry  has  been  played,  and  for  good  "  (Dr.  Schdnrock). 


SPECIFIC   ROTATORY    POWER.  103 

yellow  of  the  solar  spectrum ;  its  wave-length  is  0 '0005608  milli- 
metres. *  The  Ventzke  scale  is  such  that  TOO  divisions  equal  the 
amount  of  rotation  caused  by  a  "  normal  sugar  solution,"  200  mm. 
in  length,  at  17 '5°  C.  Ventzke  proposed  a  method  of  preparing  this 
solution  which  was  intended  to  render  the  use  of  a  balance  un- 
necessary. He  denned  the  normal  sugar  solution  as  a  solution  of 
pure  sugar  in  water  which  should  have  at  17'5°  C.  the  sp.  gr.  of 
riOO,  water  at  17'5°  being  unity.  To  determine  then  the  polarizing 
sugar  of  any  substance,  it  would  simply  be  necessary  to  prepare  a 
solution  of  it  having  this  density  as  shown  by  a  hydrometer.  But 
this  method  was  soon  abandoned,  because  the  salts  in  the  cane- 
sugars  to  be  investigated  have  a  density  different  from  that  of  sugar 
itself,  and  hence  cause  erroneous  results.  As,  however,  the  100 
point  of  many  saccharimeters  had  already  been  fixed  by  aid  of  the 
normal  sugar  solution  of  1*1  sp.  gr.,  and  as  it  was  desirable  not  to 
change  the  scale  once  introduced,  the  concentration  of  the  Ventzke 
normal  solution  at  17'5°  was  then  determined,  and  it  was  found  that 
100  c.c.  of  such  a  solution  contained  26 '048  grams  of  sugar :  thus 
the  normal  weight  should  be  26 '048  grams. 

The  above  remarks  apply  only  to  the  original  Ventzke  instru- 
ments. Since  1900  the  normal  weight  has  been  altered  to  26 '0  grams, 
and  the  normal  sugar  solution  is  prepared  as  follows  : — 

26  grams  of  chemically  pure  dry  sugar  are  dissolved  in  water  at 
20°  C.  in  a  flask  graduated  to  contain  100  true  c.c.  The  solution  is 
made  up  to  the  mark,  well  mixed,  filtered  if  necessary,  and  polarized  in 
a  200-mm.  tube  at  20°  C.  The  reading  should  be  100  scale-divisions, 
and  each  scale-division  indicates  0'26  gram  of  sucrose. 


FACTORS  FOR  THE  CONVERSION  OF  [a]D  INTO 
[a]j  AND  vice  versa. 

To  convert  [o]D  into  [a\  multiply  by  Till  (log.  0-04571)  or  add 

one-ninth. 
To  convert  [a]j  into  [a]D,  multiply  by  0'9  (log.  1-95429)  or  subtract 

one-tenth. 

Thus  if  [a]D  =  2020,  then  [a]j  =  202  +  22-4  =  224-4°. 
[4  =  57°,  then  [«]D  =  57-   5'7  =  51  '3°. 


[Landolt  gives  [«],  =  [«]D  =  1'128  [«]D. 

«    =0-887   «. 


In  the  Soleil-Ventzke-Scheibler  Saccharimeter  100  scale-divisions 
equal  38'43°  for  ray  j,  or 

1  scale-division  =0-3843°  oj  (log.  T'58467). 
*  The  wave-length  of  D  is  589  w. 


104 


SPECIFIC    ROTATORY    POWER. 


[According  to  Dr  Schonrock* 

100°  Ventzke  =  34-68°      for  D  at  17'5°C. 
or      1°         „       =   0-3468°       „ 

The  number  Q'3468  is  called  the/ador  of  reduction. 

"Landolt  has  actually  found  in  the  observation  of  a  cane-sugar 
solution  in  a  Schmidt  and  Haensch  half-shadow  saccharimeter,  with 
a  gas  lamp,  that  a  rotation  of  100°  V.  corresponds  to  the  rotation  of 
34*65°  ±  0-05°  for  sodium  light.  But  if  it  is  required  accurately  to 
measure  the  rotation  of  a  sugar  solution  for  sodium  light,  this  must 
be  done  in  a  polarimeter  actually  illuminated  by  sodium  light."  *] 

The  values  representing  specific  rotation  vary  directly  as  the  sp.  gr. 
divisor  (D)  used.  Thus,  if  150°  be  the  specific  rotation  of  maltose 
for  [o]j  3.86  (that  is,  on  the  basis  of  the  3'86  divisor)  the  specific 

150  x  3'93 
rotation  where  the  divisor  3'93  is  used  will  be  — ^-^ —  =  152-7°. 

o'oO 

The  number  of  grams  per  100  c.c.  of  a  solution  of  a  carbohydrate 
of  which  the  sp.  gr.  (water  =  1000)  is  known  is  found  by  dividing 
the  sp.  gr.  minus  1000  by  a  constant  given  in  the  subjoined  table. 
This  constant  is  usually  denoted  by  D. 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  SPECIFIC  ROTATORY  POWERS  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL 
CARBOHYDRATES  IN  10  PER  CENT.  SOLUTION  AT  20°  C.  (  =  68°  F.). 


Substance. 

Formula. 

Divisor 
to  get 
grams 

Specific  rotatory 
power  (absolute.) 

Specific  rotatory 
power  reduced  to 
the  common  divisor 

per 
lOOc.c.f 

3-86. 

D 

[«]D 

[«]j 

[OJD3-86 

Mj3-8G 

Sucrose 

C   H   0 

3-85 

+   66-5° 

+   73-8° 

+   66-6° 

+   74-0° 

Dextrose 

C6H1206 

3-85 

+  527° 

+   58-6° 

+   52'8° 

+  587° 

(d-Glucose) 

Laevulose 

99 

3-85 

-   93  8° 

-104-2° 

-   94-0° 

-104-5° 

(d-Fructose) 

Invert  Sugar 

C6H1206  + 
C6H1206 

3-85 

-20-55° 

-    22-8° 

-   20-6° 

-    22-9° 

Maltose 

3-93 

+  138° 

+  153-3° 

+  135-5° 

+  150-6° 

Dextrin 

(CJbiAS 

3-95 

+  200° 

+  222  -2° 

+  195-4° 

+  217-1° 

Lactose 

371 

+  52-5° 

+   58'3° 

... 

(cryst.) 

12Hfo  U 

Lactose 

C  jj  Oji 

3-91 

+   55-3° 

+   61-4° 

... 

(anhyd.) 

Note.— At  the  meeting  of  the  International  Commission  for  unifying  methods  of 
sugar  analysis,  held  in  Paris  in  1900,  the  normal  temperature  of  +20°  C.  was  adopted 
and  all  measuring  vessels  are  required  to  be  graduated  in  true  c.c.  at  this  temperature. 

*  Landolt's  Optical  Rotation  of  Organic  Substances,  Part  IV. 

f  For  a  complete  series  of  correct  divisors  for  various  concentrations,  the  valuable 
papers  by  Brown,  Morris  and  Millar  in  the  Journ.  Chem.  Soc.,  1897,  should  be  con- 
sulted. According  to  J.  Heron,  the  common  divisor  3'86  gives  total  solids  correctly 
only  in  those  cases  where  the  sp.  gr.  of  the  solution  lies  between  1036  and  1040.  For 
solutions  containing  more  than  12  grams  of  solids  per  100  c.c.  the  divisor  3'85  gives 
closer  results. 


SPECIFIC    ROTATORY    POWER. 


105 


The    following    values    are    given    in    Landolt's    work    already 
referred  to  : — 


Substance. 

Formula. 

Strength  of  solution 
in  grams  per  100  c.c. 

v£ 

Cane-sugar 

VizK-xPn 

10 

+   66-5 

Glucose 

C6H1206* 

1-15 

+   52-8 

(Dextrose) 

Fructose 

)  ) 

10 

-   93 

(Laevulose) 

Invert  Sugar 

C6H1206  +  C6H1206 

10 

-   20'1 

Maltose 
Lactose 

C12Ho.2Ont 
C12H22On.  H20 

10 
1-36 

+  137-5 
+   52-5 

Galactose 

G|»iA 

1-15  or  20 

+   81 

Ratfinose 

C18H32016.  5H20 

10 

+  104-5 

SOLEIL-VENTZKE-SCHEIBLER   SACCHARIMETER 

200-MM.  TUBE  USED  :  TRANSITION  TINT. 


]  gram  in  100  c.c. 

Scale-divisions  of  deviation  at  20°  C.J 

of 

For  absolute  divisors. 

For  3-86  divisor. 

Cane-sugar 

+   3'84§ 

+   3'85 

Dextrose      "   .         . 

+    3-05 

+   3-08 

Laevulose 

-    5-42 

-   5-44 

Invert  sugar    . 

-    1-19 

-    1-18 

Maltose   .         . 

+   7-98 

+  7-84 

Lactose  (cryst.) 

+   3-03 

,,         (anhyd.)      . 

+   3-20 

Dextrin  . 

+  11-56 

+  11-30 

Gallisin  . 

+  4'85 

To  convert  C^H^On  into 
C12H240]2    ,, 
C12H20010    ,, 


CH0 


Multiplier. 
360-192 

342076  =  1'053 

342-176 

3b'0'192 

360-192 

324-16 

or  add  one- 
ninth 

324-16 

360'192~( 
or  deduct 
one-tenth 


Logarithm . 
0-02228 

1-97772 
0-04577 


t  When  crystallized  Ci^ 


*  When  crystallized  C6H,aOp.  H20.  ,    _  ^1^.^il.^.^. 

t  The  number  of  scale-divisions  are  obtained  by  dividing  the  [a]j   in  each  case 

§  When  inverted  this  becomes  -  T25. 


106  SPECIFIC   ROTATORY    POWER. 

The  following  examples  show  the  methods  employed  in  solving 
problems  connected  with  this  subject. 

Ex.  I.  To  find  a  formula  for  calculating  the  amount  of  cane-sugar 
present  in  a  mixture  of  cane-sugar  and  dextrose  when  the  specific 
rotatory  power  (ray  j)  before  and  after  inversion  are  known. 

Let  R&  be  the  specific  rotatory  power  before  inversion 
Ra  be  the  specific  rotatory  power  after  inversion 
and  let  x  be  the  percentage  of  cane-sugar  present. 

Then  100  -  x  is  the  percentage  of  dextrose  present. 

Hence  100  R&  =  73-8z+(100-z)  58'6 
and  100  Ra  =  -  24-Qx  +  (100  -  x)  58'6 
~V~~  100  (R&-Ra)  =  97-8a;. 


•978 

Similarly  when  we  have  given  the  scale-degrees  (D)  before  and 
after  inversion,  the  200-mm.  tube  being  used  — 

Grams  of  cane-sugar  per  100  c.c.  of  solution  a 


Ex.  II.  Determination  of  cane-sugar  in  mixtures  of  cane-  and 
invert-sugar  only. 

The  method  now  universally  adopted  is  Herzfeld's  modification  of 
Clerget's  process.*  It  is  carried  out  as  follows  :  —  Dissolve  the  normal 
weight  (26  '048  1  grams)  of  the  sample  to  be  examined  in  water  and 
make  up  to  100  c.c.,  decolorizing  and  filtering  if  necessary,  and 
polarize  at  20°  C.  Transfer  50  c.c.  of  this  solution  to  a  100- 
c.c.  flask,  add  5  c.c.  strong  (38%)  hydrochloric  acid  and  about 
20  c.c.  of  water.  Well  shake  the  flask  and  immerse  in  a  bath  of 
water  at  the  temperature  of  70°  C.,  at  the  same  time  putting  a 
thermometer  in  the  flask  :  when  the  temperature  of  the  sugar 
solution  has  reached  68°  -  70°  C.,  which  it  should  do  in  five  minutes, 
the  flask  is  kept  in  the  water-bath  at  this  temperature  for  five 
minutes  longer,  then  taken  out,  cooled  down  quickly  to  the  normal 
temperature,  diluted  with  water  to  100  c.c.,  polarized  at  20°  C.,  and 
the  reading  multiplied  by  two  on  account  of  the  dilution  of  the 
liquid. 

Herzfeld  found  that  pure  cane-sugar  treated  as  above  showed  a 
change  of  rotation  on  a  Soleil-Ventzke-Scheibler  Saccharimeter  of 
132-66  divisions  at  20°  C.  Hence  — 

100  (direct  —  inverted  reading)* 
Cane-sugar  %  =  ~l32156~" 

But,  since  the  algebraical  difference  here  becomes  the  sum  of  the 
two  readinys  without  regard  to  sign,  and  100/132-66  =  0*7539 

Cane-sugar  %  =0'7539  x  (sum  of  readings) 

[log.  0-7539  =  1-87729]. 

*  This  method  is  only  applicable  when  other  sugars,  inulins,  starches,  and 
glucosides,  which  are  ateo  inverted  by  acids,  are  not  present.  When  such  bodies  are 
present,  hydrolysis  may  be  effected  by  the  use  of  invertase.  t  Now  26-0  grains. 


SPECIFIC    ROTATORY    POWER,  107 

If,  instead  of  20°  C.,  the  readings  before  and  after  inversion  are 
made  at  t°  C., 

100  (direct  —  inverted  reading) 

142-66-- 

EJC.  III.  Determination  of  dextrose  and  maltose  from  the  cupric 
reducing  power  and  optical  activity  (or  "opticity")  of  a  solution 
before  and  after  fermentation. 

As  an  example  we  may  take  a  commercial  "  Glucose,"  which  gave 
the  following  results  :  — 

Gupric  reduction  before  fermentation  78'85  % 
after  „  6'62  „ 

72-23 

Gpticity  before  fermentation  49  '98  [a]D. 

„       after  „  11-24    „    - 

38-74 

By  fermentation  dextrose  and  maltose  are  removed,  and  the 
differences  between  the  cupric  reductions  and  between  the  opticities 
before  and  after  fermentation  give  measures  of  the  amounts  of  the 
two  sugars  present.  Hence,  if  D  and  M  be  the  percentages  of 
dextrose  and  maltose  present  respectively,  we  have  (taking  62  as  the 
K  of  maltose)  :  — 

62M  +  100  D  =  7223(i) 
138  M  +  52-7  D  =  3874  (ii) 

(i)  x  138.     8556  M  +  13800  D  =  996774 

(ii)x   62.     8556  M+   3267  D  =  240188 

10533  D  =  756586 


From(i)    62  M  =  7223  -7183  =  40. 


Result—  Dextrose  71'83  % 
Maltose     0'65  „ 


108 


POLARIMETEB    READINGS. 


POLARIMETER  READINGS. —  REDUCTION  OF  MlNUTES  TO  DECIMALS 
OF  A  DEGREE. 


Minutes 

Decimal 
equiva- 
lent. 

Minutes 

Decimal 
equiva- 
lent. 

Minutes 

Decimal 
equiva- 
lent. 

Minutes 

Decimal 
equiva- 
lent. 

1 

•017 

16 

•267 

31 

•517 

46 

•767 

2 

•033 

17 

•283 

32 

•533 

47 

•783 

3 

•05 

18 

•3 

33 

•55 

48 

•8 

4 

•067 

19 

•317 

34 

•567 

49 

•817 

5 

•083 

20 

•333 

35 

•583 

50 

•833 

6 

•1 

21 

•35 

36 

•6 

51 

•85 

7 

•117 

22 

•367 

37 

•617 

52 

•867 

8 

•133 

23 

•383 

38 

•633 

53 

•883 

9 

•15 

24 

•4 

39 

•65 

54 

•9 

10 

•167 

25 

•417 

40 

•667 

55 

•917 

11 

•183 

26 

•433 

41 

•683 

56 

•933 

12 

•2 

27 

•45 

42 

7 

57 

•95 

13 

•217 

28 

•467 

43 

•717 

58 

•967 

14 

•233 

29 

•483 

44 

•733 

59 

•983 

15 

•25 

30 

•5 

45 

75 

DETERMINATION    OF    CUPKIC    REDUCING    POWER.  109 


CUPRIC  OXIDE  REDUCING  POWERS  OF  THE  CARBOHYDRATES. 

Definition. — "Dextrose  being  the  type  of  reducing  bodies  and  the 
substance  for  which  the  amount  of  cupric  oxide  reduced  was  first 
determined,  I  use  it  as  the  standard  to  which  to  refer  all  other 
reducing  carbohydrates  or  mixtures  of  reducing  with  non-reducing 
ones.  I  take  the  cupric  oxide  reducing  power  (or  '  cupric  reducing 
power')  of  a  body  or  mixture  to  be  the  amount  of  cupric  oxide, 
calculated  as  dextrose,  which  100  parts  reduce :  it  is  designated  by 
the  letter  K."— (0' Sullivan). 

Briefly,  we  may  define  "  K"  as  the  specific  cupric  reducing  power 
of  a  substance  referred  to  dextrose  as  standard  (100).  The  divisor 
is  often  added :  thus  Ks-86  =  25  means  that  the  cupric  reducing 
power  of  the  substance  is  one-fourth  that  of  dextrose  when  the  solid 
matter  is  determined  by  the  3-86  divisor. 

Preparation  of  Fehling's  Solution  for  Gravimetric  Determinations. — 
Dissolve  34-64  grams  of  pure  recrystallized  copper  sulphate  in  dis- 
tilled water  and  make  up  the  volume  to  500  c.c.  Then  dissolve  173 
grams  Rochelle  salt  and  65  grams  anhydrous  sodium  hydroxide  in 
separate  beakers,  mix  the  solutions,  and  make  up  the  volume  with 
distilled  water  to  500  c.c.  These  two  solutions  are  kept  in  separate 
bottles  and  are  mixed  in  equal  volumes,  to  form  Fehling's  solution, 
immediately  before  use. 

Method  of  making  a  determination  of  cupric  reducing  power. — Fifty 
c.c.  of  the  freshly  mixed  Fehling's  solution  are  placed  in  a  beaker  of 
about  250  c.c.  capacity,  and  having  a  diameter  of  7'5  cm.  (  =  3  inches). 
This  is  placed  in  a  boiling  water- bath,  and  when  the  solution  has 
attained  the  temperature  of  the  water,  the  accurately  weighed  or 
measured  volume  of  the  sugar  solution  is  added,  and  the  whole 
made  up  to  100  c.c.  with  boiling  distilled  water.  The  beaker, 
which  is  covered  with  a  clock  glass,  is  then  returned  to  the  water- 
bath  and  the  heating  continued  for  exactly  twelve  minutes.  The 
precipitated  cuprous  oxide  is  now  rapidly  filtered  off  through  a 
iSoxhlet  tube,  washed  first  with  hot  water,  then  with  alcohol  and 
ether,  and  finally  dried.  When  dry,  the  cuprous  oxide  is  reduced  to 
metallic  copper  by  gently  heating  in  a  stream  of  hydrogen,  and 
weighed  ;  or  it  may  be  oxidized  in  a  stream  of  oxygen  and  weighed 
as  CuO.  Sometimes  the  Cu20  is  weighed  as  such,  after  being  dried 
in  a  water  oven  (see  O'Sullivan  and  Stern,  Jour.  Chem.  Soc.,  1896, 
p.  1692). 

As  spontaneous  reduction  of  Fehling's  solution  invariably  takes 
place,  the  amount  of  this  must  be  carefully  determined  for  every 
fresh  batch  of  the  solution  and  allowed  for  in  each  determination 
of  cupric  reducing  power.  It  usually  amounts  to  0-002  to  0*003 
gram  CuO  per  50  c.c.  of  Fehling's  solution  us<ed. 

It  is  of  great  importance,  in  making  the  above  determination,  that 
an  amount  of  the  reducing  sugar  is  taken  that  will  give  a  weight  of 
CuO  lying  between  0'15  and  0'35  gram. 


110  DETERMINATION   OP   OUPRIC    REDUCING    POWER. 

It  must  be  carefully  borne  in  mind  that  the  values  given  in  the 
following  tables  are  correct  only  when  the  preparation  of  the 
Fehling's  solution,  and  the  manner  of  carrying  out  the  determina- 
tion of  cupric  reducing  power  conform  exactly  with  the  directions 
given  on  p.  109.  It  has  been  shown  that  the  amount  and  nature 
of  the  alkali  in  Fehling's  solution  exercises  a  great  influence  on  the 
quantity  of  copper  reduced  by  a  given  weight  of  maltose  or  of  the 
starch-transformation  products  ;  but  with  dextrose  and  laevulose 
the  influence  is  far  less.  Glendinning  has  proved  that  an  equiv- 
alent amount  of  potassium  hydroxide  may  be  substituted  for  the 
sodium  compound  without  causing  any  alteration  in  the  reducing 
power.  In  the  case  of  dextrose  and  laevulose  the  variant  which 
has  the  greatest  influence  is  the  state  of  dilution  of  the  Fehling's 
solution.  When  the  dilution  is  greater  than  that  prescribed  in  the 
standard  method,  the  reducing  power  is  appreciably  lower,  and  the 
greater  the  dilution  the  greater  the  difference. 

The  weights  of  the  principal  kinds  of  sugar  which,  it  is  generally 
assumed,  will  reduce  10  c.c.  of  Fehling's  solution  are  as  follows  :  — 

10  c.c.  Fehling's  solution 

=  Q'0500  gram  of  dextrose,  laevulose  or  invert  sugar. 
=  0"0475      „     „  sucrose  (after  inversion) 
=0'0678     „      „  lactose 
=0'0807     „     „  maltose 

Rules  to  find  the  values  of  "  K"  when  referred  to  different  divisors. 

When  the  true  divisor  is  used  to  determine  grams  of  sugar  per 
100  c.c.,  the  K  so  obtained  is  called  absolute.  Frequently,  however, 
Ks-86  —  that  is,  the  relative  cupric  reducing  power  when  the  divisor 
3-86  is  used  to  get  grams  of  sugar  per  100  c.c.—  is  required.  Thus, 
1  '367  grams  CuO  -  1  gram  of  absolute  maltose,  then  for  1  gram  of 
3-86  maltose  we  should  have 


1  -367  x         =  1  -343  gram  CuO. 
3*93 

Let  the  true  divisor  to  get  grams  per  100  c.c.  be  M,  then 


Fehling's  solution  may  not  give  correct  results  after  keeping  (say 
a  few  months),  even  when  the  tartrate  component  solution  remains 
perfectly  clear  and  apparently  undecomposed.  Decidedly  low 
results  have  been  obtained  by  the  use  of  such  a  solution. 

For  gallisin  Ks86=42. 

1  gram  =  1-01  gram  CuO  (approximately). 


FACTORS    FOB   CUPRIC    REDUCTION. 


Ill 


s 


It-      eo  < 


9,0 


001 


MOM 


>>   "  " 


- 

iC» 


OO 


COi-H         OCOOO         -*i*COOO 


i-H  O5 
(M^) 


f ss 

1 


?     i 


112 


ALCOHOL   TABLE. 


ALCOHOL  TABLE. 


VF." 

Per  cent, 
of  Alcohol 
by  weight. 

Per  cent. 
of  Alcohol 
by  volume. 

Per  cent. 
under 
Proof. 

SP.  gr.  at 
60°  F. 

Per  cent, 
of  Alcohol 
by  weight. 

Per  cent, 
of  Alcohol 
by  volume. 

Per  cent. 
under 
Proof. 

i-oooo 

o-oo 

o-oo 

100-00 

•9775 

15-25 

1878 

67-10 

•9995 

0-26 

0-33 

99-42 

•9770 

15-67 

19-28 

66-20 

•9990 

0-53 

0-66 

98-84 

•9765 

16-08 

19-78 

65-34 

•9985 

0-79 

0-99 

98-26 

•9760 

16-46 

20-24 

64-53 

•9980 

1-06 

1-34 

97  66 

•9755 

16-85 

20-71 

6372 

•9975 

1-37 

173 

96-97 

•9750 

17-25 

21-19 

62-87 

•9970 

1-69 

2-12 

96-29 

•9745 

17-67 

21-69 

62-00 

•9965 

2-00 

2-51 

95-60 

•9740 

18-08 

22-18 

61-13 

•9960 

2'28 

2-86 

95-00 

•9735 

18-46 

22-64 

60-32 

•9955 

2-56 

3-21 

94-40 

•9730 

18-85 

23-10 

59-52 

•9950 

2-83 

3-55 

9378 

•9725 

19-25 

23-58 

58-67 

•9945 

3-12 

3'90 

93-16 

•9720 

19-67 

24-08 

57-80 

•9940 

3-41 

4-27 

92-50 

•9715 

20-08 

24-58 

56-93 

•9935 

371 

4-63 

91-87 

•9710 

20-50 

25-07 

56-06 

•9930 

4-00 

5-00 

91-23 

•9705 

20-92 

25-57 

55-20 

•9925 

4'31 

5-39 

90-55 

•9700 

21-31 

26-04 

54-37 

•9920 

4'62 

578 

89-87 

•9695 

21-69 

26-49 

53-57 

•9915 

4-94 

6-17 

89-20 

•9690 

22-08 

26-95 

5277 

•9910 

5-25 

6-55 

88-50 

•9685 

22-46 

27-40 

51-98 

•9905 

5-56 

6-94 

87-84 

•9680 

22-85 

27-86 

51-18 

•9900 

5-87 

7-32 

87-16 

•9675 

23-23 

28-31 

50-38 

•9895 

6-21 

7-74 

86-43 

•9670 

23-62 

2877 

49-60 

•9890 

6-57 

8-18 

85-65 

•9665 

24-00 

29-22 

48-80 

•9885 

6-93 

8-63 

84-88 

•9660 

24-38 

29-67 

48-00 

•9880 

7-27 

9-04 

84-15 

•9655 

2477 

30-13 

47-20 

•9875 

7-60 

9-45 

83-43 

•9650 

25-14 

30-57 

46-44 

•9870 

7-93 

9-86 

8270 

•9645 

25-50 

30-98 

45-70 

•9865 

8"29 

10-30 

81-96 

•9640 

25-86 

3T40 

44-97 

•9860 

8-64 

1073 

81-20 

•9635 

26-20 

31-80 

44-27 

•9855 

9-00 

11-17 

80-42 

•9630 

26-53 

32-19 

43-60 

•9850 

9-36 

11-61 

79-65 

•9625 

26-87 

32'58 

42-90 

•9845 

971 

12-05 

78-90 

•9620 

27-21 

32-98 

42-20 

•9840 

10-08 

12-49 

78-10 

•9615 

27  -57 

33-39 

41-47 

•9835 

10-46 

12-96 

77-30 

•9610 

'27-93 

33-81 

4074 

•9830 

10-85 

13-43 

76-46 

•9605 

28-25 

34-18 

40-10 

•9825 

11-23 

13-90 

75-64 

•9600 

28-56 

34-54 

39-47 

•9820 

11-62 

14-37   . 

74-82 

•9595 

28-87 

34-90 

38-84 

•9815 

12-00 

14-84 

74-00 

•9590 

29'20 

35-28 

38-18 

•9810 

12-38 

15-30 

73-18 

•9585 

29-53 

35-66 

37-50 

•9805 

1277 

1577 

72-36 

•9580 

29-87 

36-04 

36-83 

•9800 

13-15 

16-24 

71-54 

•9575 

3017 

36-39 

36-23 

•9795 

13-54 

1670 

7073 

•9570 

30-44 

3670 

35-68 

•9790 

13-92 

17-17 

69-90 

•9565 

3072 

37-02 

35-13 

•9785 

14-36 

1770 

68-97 

•9560 

31-00 

37-34 

34-57 

•9780 

14-82 

18'25 

68-00 

•9555 

31-31 

37-69 

33-95 

ALCOHOL   TABLE. 


113 


ALCOHOL  TABLE— continued. 


Sp.  gr. 
at  60°  F. 

Per  cent, 
of  Alcohol 
by  weight. 

Per  cent, 
of  Alcohol 
by  volume. 

Per  cent. 
under 
Proof. 

Sp.  gr. 
at  60°  F. 

Per  cent, 
of  Alcohol 
by  weight 

Per  cent, 
of  Alcohol 
by  volume. 

Per  cent. 
under 
Proof. 

•9550 

31-62 

38-04 

33-32 

•9325 

43-48 

51-07 

10-50 

•9545 

31-94 

38-40 

32-70 

•9320 

43-71 

51-32 

10-05 

•9540 

32-25 

3875 

32-08 

•9315 

43-95 

51'58 

9-60 

•9535 

32-56 

39-11 

31-46 

•9310 

44-18 

51-82 

9-20 

•9530 

32-87 

39-47 

30-84 

•9305 

44-41 

52-06 

877 

•9525 

33-18 

39-81 

30-24 

•9300 

44-64 

52-29 

8'36 

•9520 

33-47 

40-14 

29-66 

•9295 

44-86 

52-53 

7-94 

•9515 

33-76 

40-47 

29-08 

•9290 

45-09 

52-77 

7-52 

•9510 

34-05 

4079 

28-52 

•9285 

4532 

53-01 

7-10 

•9505 

34-29 

41-05 

28-06 

•9280 

45-55 

53-24 

670 

•9500 

34-52 

41-32 

27-60 

•9275 

45-77 

53-48 

6-27 

•9495 

34-76 

41-58 

27-13 

•9270 

46-00 

5372 

5-86 

•9490 

35-00 

41-84 

26-67 

9265 

46-23 

53-95 

5-45 

•9485 

35-25 

42-12 

26-20 

•9260 

46-46 

54-19 

5-03 

•9480 

35-50 

42  '40 

2570 

•9255 

46-68 

54-43 

4-62 

•9475 

35-75 

42-67 

25-22 

•9250 

46-91 

54-66 

4-20 

•9470 

36-00 

42-95 

24-74 

•9245 

47-14 

54-90 

3-80 

•9465 

36-28 

43-26 

24-20 

•9240 

47-36 

55-13 

3-38 

•9460 

36-56 

43-56 

23-66 

•9235 

47-59 

55-37 

2-97 

•9455 

36-83 

43-87 

23-12 

•9230 

47-82 

55-60 

2-56 

•9450 

37-11 

4418 

22-58 

•9225 

48-05 

55-83 

2-15 

•9445 

37-39 

44-49 

22-04 

•9220 

48-27 

56-07 

1-74 

•9440 

37-67 

4479 

21-50 

•9215 

48-50 

56-30 

1-33 

•9435 

37*94 

45-10 

20-96 

•9210 

48-73 

56-54 

0-92 

•9430 

38-22 

45-41 

20-43 

•9205 

48-96 

56-77 

0'50 

•9425 

38-50 

4571 

19-89 

•9200 

49-16 

56-98 

0-14 

•9420 

38-78 

46-02 

19-36 

•9198 

49-24 

57'06 

Proof 

•9415 

39-05 

46-32 

18-83 

•9195 

49-39 

57-20 

0-25 

•9410 

39-30 

46-59 

18-36 

•9190 

49-64 

57-45 

0-68 

•9405 

39-55 

46-86 

17-88 

•9185 

49-86 

57-69 

1-10 

•9400 

39-80 

47-13 

17-40 

•9180 

50-09 

57-92 

1-51 

•9395 

40-05 

47-40 

16-93 

•9175 

50-30 

58-14 

1-89 

•9390 

40-30 

47-67 

16-46 

•9170 

50-52 

58-36 

2-28 

•9385 

40-55 

47-94 

15-98 

•9165 

5074 

58-58 

2-66 

•9380 

40-80 

48-21 

15-50 

•9160 

50-96 

58-80 

3-05 

•9375 

41-05 

48-48 

15-04 

•9155 

51-17 

59-01 

3-41 

•9370 

41-30 

48-75 

14-57 

-9150 

51-38 

59-22 

378 

•9365 

41-55 

49-02 

14-10 

•9145 

51-58 

59-43 

4-14 

•9360 

41-80 

49-29 

13-63 

•9140 

5179 

59-63 

4-50 

•9355 

42-05 

49-55 

13-16 

•9135 

52-00 

59-84 

4-87 

•9350 

42-29 

49-81 

1270 

•9130 

52-23 

60-07 

5-27 

•9345 

42-52 

50-06 

12-27 

•9125 

52-45 

60-30 

5-67 

•9340 

4276 

50-31 

11-82 

•9120 

52-68 

60-52 

6-07 

9335 

43-00 

50  -57 

11-38 

•9115 

52-91 

6074 

6-47 

•9330 

43-24 

50-82 

10-94 

•9110 

53-13 

60-97 

6'86 

114 


ALCOHOL    TABLE. 


ALCOHOL  TABLE — continued. 


Sp.gr. 
at  60"  F. 

Per  cent, 
of  Alcohol 
by  weight. 

Per  cent, 
of  Alcohol 
by  volume. 

Per  cent. 
over 
Proof. 

Sp.  gr. 
at  60°  F. 

Per  cent, 
of  Alcohol 
by  weight. 

Per  cent, 
of  Alcohol 
by  volume. 

Per  cent. 
over 
Proof. 

•9105 

53-35 

61-19 

7-23 

•8880 

63-26 

70-77 

24-02 

•9100 

53-57 

61-40 

7-61 

•8875 

63-48 

70-97 

24-37 

•9095 

53-78 

61-62 

7-99 

•8870 

6370 

71-17 

24-73 

•9090 

54-00 

61-84 

8-36 

•8865 

63  -91 

71-38 

25-09 

•9085 

54-24 

62-07 

8-78 

•8860 

64-13 

71-58 

25-44 

•9080 

54-48 

62-31 

9-20 

•8855 

64-35 

71-78 

25-79 

•9075 

5471 

62-55 

9-62 

•8850 

64-57 

71-98 

26-15 

•9070 

54-95 

62-79 

10-03 

•8845 

64-78 

72-18 

26-50 

•9065 

55-18 

63-02 

10-44 

•8840 

65-00 

72-38 

26-85 

•9060 

55-41 

63-24 

10-84 

•8835 

65-21 

72-58 

27-19 

•9055 

55-64 

63-46 

11-24 

•8830 

65-42 

72-77 

27-52 

•9050 

55-86 

63-69 

11-64 

•8825 

65-63 

72-96 

27-85 

•9045 

56-09 

63-91 

12-03 

•8820 

65-83 

73-15 

28-19 

•9040 

56-32 

64-14 

12-41 

•8815 

66-04 

73-34 

28-52 

•9035 

56-55 

64-36 

12-80 

•8810 

66-26 

73-54 

28-87 

•9030 

5677 

64-58 

13-18 

•8805 

66-48 

7373 

29-22 

9025 

57-00 

64-80 

13-57 

•8800 

6670 

73-93 

29-57 

•9020 

57-22 

65-01 

13-92 

•8795 

60-91 

7413 

29-92 

•9015 

57-42 

65-21 

14-27 

•8790 

67-13 

74-33 

30-26 

•9010 

57-63 

65-41 

14-62 

•8785 

67-33 

74-52 

30-59 

•9005 

57-83 

65-61 

14-97 

•8780 

67-54 

7470 

30-92 

•9000 

58-05 

65-81 

15-33 

•8775 

6775 

74-89 

31-25 

•3995 

58-27 

66-03 

15-72 

•8770 

67-96 

75-08 

31-58 

•8990 

58-50 

66-25 

16-11 

•8765 

68-17 

75-27 

31-90 

•8985 

58-73 

66-47 

16-49 

•8760 

68-38 

75-45 

32-23 

•8980 

58-95 

66-69 

16-88 

•8755 

68-58 

75-64 

32-56 

•8975 

59-17 

66-90 

17-25 

•8750 

68-79 

75-83 

32-89 

•8970 

59-39 

67-11 

17-61 

•8745 

69-00 

76-01 

33-21 

•8965 

59-61 

67-32 

17-98 

•8740 

69-21 

76-20 

33-54 

•8960 

59-83 

67-53 

18-34 

•8735 

69-42 

76-39 

33-86 

•8955 

60-04 

67-73 

18-70 

•8730 

69-63 

76-57 

34-19 

•8950 

60-26 

67-93 

19-05 

•8725 

69-83 

76-76 

34-51 

•8945 

60-46 

68-13 

19-39 

•8720 

70-04 

76-94 

34-84 

•8940 

60-67 

68-33 

1974 

•8715 

70-24 

77-12 

35-14 

•8935 

60-88 

68-52 

20-08 

•8710 

70-44 

77-29 

35-45 

•8930 

61-08 

6872 

20-42 

•8705 

70-64 

77-46 

3576 

•8925 

61-29 

68-91 

2077 

•8700 

70-84 

77-64 

36-07 

•8920 

61-50 

69-11 

21-11 

•8695 

71-04 

77-82 

36-37 

•8915 

61-71 

69-30 

21-45 

•8690 

71-25 

78-00 

36-69 

•8910 

61-92 

69-50 

21-79 

•8685 

71-46 

78-18 

37-01 

•8905 

62-14 

69-71 

22-16 

•8680 

71-67 

78-36 

37-33 

•8900 

62-36 

69-92 

22-53 

•8675 

71-88 

78-55 

37-65 

•8895 

62-59 

70-14 

22  -91 

•8670 

72-09 

78-73 

37-98 

•8890 

62-82 

70-35 

23-29 

•8665 

72-30 

78-93 

38-32 

•8885 

63-04 

70-57 

23-66 

•8660 

72-52 

7912 

38-65 

ALCOHOL    TABLE. 

ALCOHOL  TABLE — continued. 


115 


Per  cent. 

Pei-  cent. 

Per  cent 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Sp.  gr. 

of  Alcohol 

of  Alcohol 

over 

Sp.  gr. 

,       llflQ      ,-, 

of  Alcohol 

of  Alcohol 

over 

at  60°  F. 

by  weight 

by  volume 

Proof. 

at  60   K 

by  weight 

by  volume 

Proof. 

•8655 

7274 

79-31 

38-99 

•8430 

82-15 

87-24 

52-90 

•8650 

72-96 

79-50 

39-32 

•8425 

82-35 

87-40 

53-16 

•8645 

73-17 

79-68 

39-64 

•8420 

82-54 

87-55 

53-43 

•8640 

73-38 

79-86 

39-96 

•8415 

8273 

87-70 

5370 

•8635 

73-58 

80-04 

40-27 

•8410 

82-92 

87-85 

53-96 

•8630 

7379 

80-22 

40-60 

•8405 

83-12 

88-00 

54-23 

•8625 

74-00 

80-40 

40-91 

•8400 

83-31 

88-16 

54-50 

•8620 

74-23 

80-60 

41-26 

•8395 

83-50 

88-31 

54-75 

•8615 

74-45 

80-80 

41-61 

•8390 

83-69 

88-46 

55-02 

•8610 

74-68 

81-00 

41-96 

•8385 

83-88 

88-61 

55-28 

•8605 

74-91 

81-20 

42-31 

•8380 

84-08 

88-76 

55-55 

•8600 

75-14 

81-40 

42-66 

•8375 

84-28 

88-92 

55-83 

•8595 

75-36 

81-60 

43-00 

•8370 

84-48 

89-08 

56-10 

•8590 

75-59 

81-80 

43-35 

•8365 

84-68 

89*24 

56-38 

•8585 

75-82 

82-00 

43-70 

•8360 

84-88 

89-39 

56-66 

•8580 

76-04 

82-19 

44-04 

•8355 

85-08 

89-55 

56-93 

•8575 

76-25 

82-37 

44-35 

•8350 

85-27 

8970 

57  20 

•8570 

76-46 

82-54 

44-66 

•8345 

85-46 

89-84 

57-45 

•8565 

76-67 

82-72 

44-97 

•8340 

85-65 

89-99 

57-71 

•8560 

76-88 

82-90 

45-28 

•8335 

85-85 

90-14 

57-97 

•8555 

77-08 

83-07 

45-60 

•8330 

86-04 

90-29 

58-23 

•8550 

77-29 

83  -25 

45-90 

•8325 

86-23 

90-43 

58-48 

•8545 

77-50 

83-43 

46-20 

•8320 

86-42 

90-58 

58-74 

•8540 

77-71 

83-60 

46-51 

•8315 

86-62 

9073 

59-00 

•8535 

77-92 

83-78 

46-82 

•8310 

86-81 

90-88 

59-26 

•8530 

78-12 

83-94 

47-11 

•8305 

87-00 

91-02 

59-51 

•8525 

78-32 

84-11 

47-40 

•8300 

87-19 

91-17 

59-77 

•8520 

78-52 

84-27 

4770 

•8295 

87-38 

91-31 

60-02 

•8515 

78-72 

84-44 

47-98 

•8290 

87-58 

91-46 

60-28 

•8510 

78-92 

84-60 

48-27 

•8285 

87-77 

91-60 

60-53 

•8505 

79-12 

8477 

48-56 

•8280 

87-96 

9175 

60-79 

•8500 

79-32 

84-93 

48-84 

•8275 

88-16 

91-90 

61-05 

•8495 

79-52 

85-10 

49-13 

•8270 

88-36 

92-05 

61-32 

•8490 

7972 

85-26 

49-38 

•8265 

88-56 

92-21 

61-60 

•8485 

79-92 

85-42 

49-67 

•8260 

8876 

92-36 

61-86 

•8480 

80-13 

85-59 

50  '00 

•8255 

88-96 

92-51 

62-12 

•8475 

80-33 

85-77 

50-31 

•8250 

89-16 

92-66 

62-38 

•8470 

80-54 

85-94 

50-61 

•8245 

89-35 

92-80 

62-63 

•8465 

80-75 

86-11 

50-91 

•8240 

89-54 

92-94 

62-88 

•8460 

80-96 

86-28 

51-21 

•8235 

89-73 

93-09 

63-13 

•8455 

81-16 

86-45 

51  '50 

•8230 

89-92 

93-23 

63-38 

•8450 

81-36 

86-61 

51-78 

•8225 

90-11 

93-36 

63-62 

•8445 

81-56 

8677 

52-06 

•8220 

90-29 

93-49 

63  84 

•8440 

81-76 

86-93 

52-34 

•8215 

90-46 

93-62 

64-06 

•8435 

81-96 

87-09 

52-62 

•8210 

90-64 

9375 

64-30 

116 


ALCOHOL   TABLE. 
ALCOHOL  TABLE—  continued. 


Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Sp.gr. 

of  Alcohol 

of  Alcohol 

over 

Sp.  gr. 

of  Alcohol 

of  Alcohol 

over 

at  60°  F. 

by  weight 

by  volume. 

Proof. 

at  CO"  F. 

by  weight. 

by  volume. 

Proof. 

•8205 

90-82 

93-87 

64-51 

•8065 

95-86 

97-39 

70-67 

•8200 

91-00 

94-00 

6474 

•8060 

96  -03 

97-51 

70-88 

•8195 

91-18 

94-13 

64-96 

•8055 

96-20 

97-62 

71-07 

•8190 

91-36 

94-26 

65-18 

•8050 

96-37 

97-73 

71-26 

•8185 

91-54 

94-38 

65-40 

•8045 

96-53 

97-83 

71-45 

•8180 

9171 

94-51 

65-62 

•8040 

96-70 

97-94 

71-64 

•8175 

91-89 

94-64 

65-85 

•8035 

96-87 

98-05 

71-83 

•8170 

92-07 

94-76 

66-07 

•8030 

97-03 

98-16 

72-02 

•8165 

92'26 

94-90 

66-30 

•8025 

97-20 

98-27 

72-20 

•8160 

92-44 

95-03 

66-53 

•8020 

97-37 

98-37 

72-40 

•8155 

92-63 

95-16 

66-76 

•8015 

97-53 

98-48 

72-58 

•8150 

92-81 

95-29 

67-00 

•8010 

97-70 

98-59 

72-77 

•8145 

93-00 

95-42 

67-23 

•8005 

97-87 

98-69 

72-95 

•8140 

93-18 

95-55 

67-46 

•8000 

98-03 

98-80 

73-14 

•8135 

93-37 

95-69 

67-70 

•7995 

98-19 

98-89 

73-30 

•8130 

93-55 

95-82 

67-92 

•7990 

98-34 

98-98 

73-47 

•8125 

93-74 

95-95 

68-15 

•7985 

98-50 

99-07 

73-64 

•8120 

93-92 

96-08 

68-38 

•7980 

98-66 

99-16 

73-81 

•8115 

94-10 

96-20 

68-60 

•7975 

98-81 

99-26 

73-97 

•8110 

94-28 

96-32 

68-80 

•7970 

98-97 

99-35 

74-14 

•8105 

94-45 

96-43 

69-00 

•7965 

99-13 

99-45 

74-31 

•8100 

94-62 

96-55 

69-20 

•7960 

99-29 

99-55 

74-50 

•8095 

94-80 

96-67 

69-40 

•7955 

99-45 

99-65 

74-66 

•8090 

94-97 

96-78 

69-61 

•7950 

99-61 

99-75 

74-83 

•8085 

95-14 

96-90 

69-82 

•7945 

9978 

99-86 

75-01 

•8080 

95-32 

97-02 

70-03 

•7940 

99-94 

99-96 

75-18 

•8075 

95-50 

97-15 

70-25 

Absolute 

Alcohol 

•8070 

95-68 

97-27 

70-46 

•7938 

100-00 

100-00 

75-25 

In  "The  Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs  Act  Amendment  Act,  1879,"  section 
6,  it  is  enacted  that  Brandy,  Whisky,  or  Rum  may  be  reduced  to  25° 
U.  P.  and  Gin  to  35°  U. P. 

25°  U.P.  =0-9473  sp.  gr.,  42-78  per  cent,  alcohol  by  volume,  35'85 
per  cent,  alcohol  by  weight. 

35°  U.P.  =0-9564  sp.  gr.,  37 '08  per  cent,  alcohol  by  volume,  3078 
per  cent,  alcohol  by  weight. 

"Rectified  spirit"  (B.P.  1898)  is  alcohol  of  sp.  gr.  0'8340.  It 
contains  90  percent,  of  alcohol  by  volume,  85 '65  percent  of  alcohol 
by  weight;  577°O.P. 

"  Proof  Spirit "  is  defined  by  statute  (58  Geo.  III.  c.  28)  as  "that 
which  at  a  temperature  of  51°  F.  weighs  exactly  twelve-thirteenths  of 
an  equal  measure  of  distilled  water."  The  sp.  gr.  of  proof  spirit  at 
51°  F.  is  0-92308  (water  at  51°  F.  =1).  At  60°  F./600  F.  its  sp.  gr. 


DILUTED    SPIRITS.  117 

is  0*91984,  and  it  contains  57*06  per  cent,  of  alcohol  by  volume,  49  '24 
per  cent,  by  weight. 

By  the  "  obscuration"  of  spirits  is  meant  the  difference  between  the 
apparent  alcoholic  strength,  as  shown  by  the  hydrometer,  and  the  true 
strength  found  after  distillation. 

Simple  rules  for  finding  the  percentages  of  added  water  in  the 
case  of  diluted  spirits. 

I.  Brandy,  Whisky,  or  Rum  (25°  U.  P.  allowed). 

Let  a  sample  be  N°  U.  P. 

Therefore  in  100  volumes  we  have  N  volumes  of  water,  and 
(100  -  N)  volumes  of  proof-spirit. 

Let  x  be  the  percentage  of  water  by  volume  added  to  spirit 
of  25°  U.  P.  to  produce  a  sample  N°  U.  P.  Then  equating 
amounts  of  water  we  have  — 


Hence  we  have  the  following  rule  :  — 

To  get  percentage  of  added  water  by  volume  in  the  case  of 
diluted  brandy,  whisky,  or  rum,  increase  the  excess  of  degrees 
U.  P.  above  25  by  one-third. 

II.  Gin  (35°  U.  P.  allowed). 

Reasoning  exactly  as  in  I.,  we  have  — 
35 


20 
*i-  13( 

«!  =  1-54(1^-35). 
Hence  the  rule  :  — 

To  get  percentage  of  added  water  by  volume  in  diluted  gin, 
multiply  the  excess  of  degrees  U.  P  above  35  by  1-54. 

%*  The  above  rules  I  owe  to  Mr  E.  W.  T.  Jones,  who  discovered  them  empirically  and 
used  them  simply  for  checking  results  obtained  by  the  usual  method  of  calculation 
from  the  percentage  of  alcohol  present.  The  proofs  I  have  given  above  established  the 
accuracy  of  Rule  I.,  and  gave  the  correct  factor  T54  in  Rule  II.  in  place  of  the  H 
previously  used  for  checking.—^.  E.J. 


118 


ALCOHOL  (CORRECTIONS,  ETC.). 


CORRECTION  OF  SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  OF  DILUTE  ALCOHOL  FOR 
TEMPERATURE. 


Specific  Gravity. 

1°  Fah. 

1°C. 

Specific  Gravity. 

1°  Fah. 

re.     | 

•794-'864 

0-00040 

0-00083 

•965-    '966 

0-00026 

0-00047 

•864--8S9 

45             81 

•966-   '967 

25 

45 

•889-  -902 

44  i           79 

•967-   -968 

24 

43 

•902--912 

43  !           77 

•968-  '969 

23 

41 

•912-  -921 

42 

76 

•969-   -970 

22 

40 

•921--928 

41 

74 

•970-  '971 

21 

38 

•928-  '935 

40 

72 

•971-   '973 

20 

36 

•935--940 

39 

70 

•973-  '974 

19 

34 

•940--943 

38 

68 

•974-  '975 

18 

32 

•943--94G 

37 

67 

•975-  -976 

17 

31 

•94G--949 

36 

65 

•976-  '977 

16 

29 

•949-  -951 

35 

63 

•977-  '978 

15 

27 

•951--953 

34 

61 

•978-  '980 

14 

25 

•9S3--955 

33 

59 

•980-  -981 

13 

23 

•95S--957 

32 

58 

•981-  '983 

12 

22 

•957-'959 

31 

56 

•983-  '985 

11 

20 

•959--961 

30 

54 

•985-  '987 

10 

18 

•961--962 

29 

52 

•987-  '990 

•00009 

16 

•962-'  963 

28 

50 

•990-  -995 

8 

14 

•96S--965 

27 

49 

•995-1-000 

7 

13 

Rule.  —  To  obtain  correct  sp.  gr.  at  60°  Fah.  (  =  15'5°  0.),  multiply 
the  factor  given  in  the  table  opposite  to  the  observed  sp.  gr.  by  the 
difference  in  temperature,  and  add  if  the  recorded  temperature  is  above 
60°  F.  ,  or  subtract,  if  it  is  below  60°. 

^a;.—  The  sp.  gr.  at  60°  Fah.  of  dilute  alcohol  of  sp.  gr.  0'952  at 
64°  Fah.  is  0-952  +  (0-00034x4)  =  0-95336. 

VARIOUS  METHODS  OF  STATING  ALCOHOLIC  STRENGTHS. 

Based  on  Squibb's  absolute  alcohol  of  sp.  gr.  0'7935, 

Proof  spirit  containing  49  '2  °/0  of  this  alcohol,  and  having  a 

sp.  gr.  of  0-9198, 

and  using  c.c.  to  indicate  the  volume  of  1  gram  of  water  at  60°  F.,  we 
have  the  formulae  given  below. 
Let      S  =  sp.  gr.  at  60°/60°  F. 

°/o=*grams  of  absolute  alcohol  per  100  grams. 
-y/v  =  c.c.  absolute  alcohol  per  100  c.c. 
t0/<y  =  grams  of  absolute  alcohol  per  100  c.c. 
—  c.c.  proof  spirit  per  100  c.c. 


then 


..  _v/vx  -7935  _w/v__Px  '4525 

0-5708  ? 
-0-4525  P 

P-°/0x2'21  S  -1753  vfv  =2  "21  w/v 
grains  per  fluid  ounce  *-w/v  x  4*3756. 


t>/fl-7  x  1-262  S-  1-262  «?/v 
wv  =  °\S  =  -7935  v/v 


ALCOHOL    CALCULATIONS.  119 


ALCOHOL  CALCULATIONS. 

Ex.  1.  To  find  the  quantity  of  water  which  must  be  added  to 
spirit  of  25°  O.P.  to  reduce  it  to  20°  U.P.— 

100  volumes  of  spirit  at  25°  O.P.  contain  as  much  alcohol  as 

125  volumes  of  proof  spirit. 
100  volumes  of  spirit  at  20°  U.P.  contain  as  much  alcohol  as 

80  volumes  of  proof  spirit. 

Hence,  125  volumes  of  proof  spirit  are  equivalent  to  100  volumes 
of  spirit  of  25°  O.P. 

1 00 
1  volume  of  proof  spirit  is  equivalent  to  —  volumes  of 

spirit  of  25°  O.P. 

TOO  x  80 
80  volumes  of  proof  spirit  are  equivalent  to  — — =  64 

volumes  of  spirit  of  25°  O.P.  ; 

that  is,  100  volumes  of  spirit  of  20°  U.P.  can  be  made  by  diluting 
64  volumes  of  spirit  of  25°  O.P.  with  water. 

Suppose,  for  example,  10  gallons  at  20°  U.P.  are  required,  we 
take  6'4  gallons  at  25°  O.P.,  or  6  gallons  1  quart  1|  pints,  and 
dilute  with  water  to  10  gallons. 

Ex.  2.  To  find  the  quantity  of  water  which  must  be  added  to 
spirit  of  60°  O.P.  to  reduce  it  to  30°  O.P. 

100  volumes  of  spirit  at  60°  O.P.  are  equivalent  to  160  volumes 

of  proof  spirit. 
100  volumes  of  spirit  at  30°  O.P.  are  equivalent  to  130  volumes 

of  proof  spirit. 


Hence  160  volumes  of  proof  spirit  are  equivalent  to  100  volumes 
of  spirit  of  60°  O.P.— 

1  C\C\ 

1  volume  of  proof  spirit  is  equivalent  to  — —  volumes  of 

160 
spirit  of  60°  O.P. 

130  volumes  of  proof  spirit  are  equivalent  to  * —  = 

160 

8l£  volumes  of  spirit  of  60°  O.P. ; 

that  is,  100  volumes  of  spirit  of  30°  O.P.  can  be  made  by  diluting 
8l£  volumes  of  spirit  of  60°  O.P.  with  water. 

Thus  if  20  gallons  are  required  we  must  take  16£  gallons  of  the 
strong  spirit  and  dilute  with  water  to  20  gallons. 


120 


PHOSPHATE   TABLE. 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  AMOUNTS  TO  BE  subtracted  FROM  THE  VALUES 

GIVEN  IN  THE  PHOSPHATE  TABLE  SO  THAT  THEY  MAY  BE  IN 
ACCORDANCE  WITH  THE  INTERNATIONAL  ATOMIC  WEIGHTS 
OF  1912. 


Mg2P207 

Ca3P208 

CaP206 

P205 

P-2 

10-0 

0-03 

0-02 

0'02 

... 

15-0 

0-05 

0-03 

0-03 

0-008 

20-0 

0-07 

0-05 

0-03 

O'Oll 

25-0 

0-08 

0-06 

0-04 

0-013 

30-0 

0-09 

0-07 

0-05 

0-016 

35-0 

Oil 

0-08 

0-06 

0-019 

40'0 

0-13 

0-09 

0-07 

0-021 

45-0 

0'15 

o-io 

0'07 

0-025 

50-0 

016 

0-12 

0-08 

0-027 

65-0 

0-18 

0'13 

0-09 

0-029 

60'0 

0-19 

0-13 

o-io 

0-033 

65-0 

0'21 

0-14 

O'll 

0-035 

70-0 

0'23 

0-15 

0-12 

0-038 

Ex.  1.  2  grams  of  a  sample  of  Superphosphate  gave  0-3770  gram 
Mg2P207. 

From  the  Table  37-70  =  52'64  Ca3P208 

Correction  (mean  of  '11  and  -13)=     '12 

2)52-52 
26-26%  Ca3P208 

Ex.  2.  1  gram  of  a  Phosphate  gave  0*5500  gram  Mg2P207. 

From  the  Table  55-00  Mg2P207  =  35-18   P206=76'80  Ca3P208. 
Correction  (to  be  subtracted)  *09  -18 

35-09% P20f>  =  76-62  Ca3P208. 


PHOSPHATE    TABLE. 


121 


TABLE  FOR  PHOSPHATES. 


i 

• 

Mg2P2Or 

Ca3P208 

CaP206 

P206 

P2 

Mg2P207 

Ca8P208 

CaP206 

P20S 

P2 

0-1 

0'14 

0-09 

0-06 

0-028 

4-1 

573 

3'66 

2-62 

1-145 

•2 

0-28 

0-18 

0-13 

0-056 

•2 

5-87 

375 

2-69 

1-173 

•3 

0-42 

0-27 

0-19 

0-084 

•3 

6-00 

3-84 

2-75 

1-201 

•4 

0-56 

0-36 

0-26 

0-112 

•4 

6-14 

3-93 

2-82 

1-229 

•5 

070 

0-45 

0-32 

0-140 

•5 

6-28 

4-01 

2-88 

1-257 

•6 

0-84 

0-54 

0-38 

0-168 

•6 

6-42 

4-10 

2-94 

1-285 

7 

0-98 

0-62 

0-45 

0-196 

•7 

6-56 

4-19 

3-01 

1-313 

•8 

1-12 

071 

0-51 

0-223 

•8 

670 

4-28 

3-07 

1-341 

•9 

1-26 

0-80 

0-58 

0-251 

•9 

6-84 

4-37 

3-14 

1-369 

ro 

1-40 

0-89 

0-64 

0-279 

5-0 

6-98 

4-46 

3-20 

1-396 

•1 

1-54 

0-98 

070 

0-307 

•1 

7-12 

4-55 

3-26 

1-424 

•2 

1-68 

1-07 

077 

0-335 

•2 

7-26 

4-64 

3-33 

1-452 

•3 

1-82 

116 

0-83 

0-363 

•3 

7-40 

473 

3-39 

1-480 

•4 

1-96 

1-25 

0-90 

0-391 

•4 

7-54 

4-82 

3-45 

1-508 

•5 

2-09 

T34 

0-96 

0-419 

•5 

7-68 

4-91 

3-52 

1-536 

•6 

2-23 

1-43 

1-02 

0-447 

•6 

7-82 

5-00 

3-58 

1-564 

7 

2-37 

1-52 

1-09 

0-475 

•7 

7-96 

5-08 

3-65 

1-592 

•8 

2-51 

1-61 

1-15 

0-503 

•8 

8-10 

5-17 

371 

1-620 

•9 

2-65 

170 

1-22 

0-531 

•9 

8-24 

5-26 

377 

1-648 

2-0 

279 

178 

1-28 

0-559 

6-0 

8-38 

5-35 

3-84 

1-676 

•1 

2-93 

T87 

1-34 

0-587 

•1 

8-52 

5-44 

3-90 

1-704 

•2 

3-07 

1-96 

1-41 

0-614 

•2 

8-66 

5-53 

3-97 

1732 

•3 

3-21 

2-05 

1-47 

0-642 

•3 

8-80 

5-62 

4-03 

1760 

•4 

3-35 

2-14 

1-54 

0-670 

•4 

8-94 

571 

4-09 

1787 

•5 

3-49 

2-23 

1-60 

0-698 

•5 

9-08 

5-80 

4-16 

1-815 

•6 

3'63 

2-32 

1-66 

0726 

•6 

9-22 

5-89 

4-22 

1-843 

•7 

377 

2'41 

173 

0-754 

•7 

9-36 

5-98 

4-29 

1-871 

•8 

3-91 

2-50 

179 

0782 

•8 

9-50 

6-07 

4-35 

1-899 

•9 

4-05 

2-59 

1-86 

0-810 

•9 

9-64 

6-15 

•41 

1-927 

3-0 

4-19 

2-68 

1-92 

0-838 

7-0 

977 

6-24 

•48 

1-955 

•1 

4-33 

277 

1-98 

0-866 

•1 

9-91 

6-33 

•54 

1-983 

•2 

4-47 

2-85 

2-05 

0-894 

•2 

10-05 

6-42 

•61 

2-011 

•3 

4-61 

2-94 

2-11 

0-922 

•3 

10-19 

6-51 

•67 

2-039 

•4 

475 

3-03 

2'18 

0-950 

•4 

10-33 

6-60 

73 

2-067 

•5 

4-89 

3-12 

2-24 

0-978 

•5 

10-47 

6-69 

•80 

2-095 

•6 

5-03 

3-21 

2-30 

1-006 

•6 

10-61 

678 

•86 

2-123 

•7 

5-17 

3-30 

2-37 

1-033 

•7 

1075 

6-87 

4-93 

2151 

•8 

5-31 

3-39 

2-43 

1-061 

•8 

10-89 

6-96 

4-99 

2-178 

•9 

5-45 

3-48 

2-50 

1-089 

•9 

11-03 

7-05 

5-05 

2-206 

4-0 

5-59 

3-57 

2-56 

1-117 

8-0 

11-17 

7-14 

5-12 

2-234 

t 

Mg0P207       -01        -02        -03        -04        '05 

•06 

•07 

•08 

•09 

Ca3P208        -01        '03        -04        "06        *07 
CaP206         -01         -02        -03        '04        -05 

•08 
•05 

•10 

•06 

•11 
•07 

•13 
•08 

P206             -01         -01        -02        '03        -03 

•04 

•05 

•05 

•06 

P2                 '003       -006       -008      'Oil       -014 

•017 

•020 

•022 

•025 

122 


PHOSPHATE    TABLE. 

TABLE  FOR  PHOSPHATES— continued. 


Mg2P207 

Ca,P,08 

CaP2Oa 

P205 

P2 

Mg2P207 

Ca3P208 

CaP2Ofl 

P205 

P2 

8-1 

11-31 

7-22 

5-18 

2-262 

127 

17-73 

11-33 

8-12 

3-547 

•2 

11-45 

7-31 

5-25 

2-290 

•8 

17-87 

11-42 

8-19 

3-575 

•3 

11-59 

7-40 

5-31 

2-318 

•9 

18-01 

11-51 

8-25 

3  -603 

•4 

11-73 

7-49 

5-37 

2-346 

13-0 

18-15 

11-60 

8-32 

3-631 

•5 

11-87 

7-58 

5-44 

2-374 

•1 

18-29 

11-68 

8-38 

3-659 

•6 

12-01 

7-67 

5-50 

2-402 

•2 

18-43 

1177 

8-44 

3-687 

•7 

12-15 

776 

5-57 

2-430 

•3 

18-57 

11-86 

8-51 

3714 

•8 

12-29 

7-85 

5-63 

2-458 

•4 

18-71 

11-95 

8-57 

3-742 

•9 

12-43 

7-94 

5-69 

2-486 

•5 

18-85 

12-04 

8-64 

3770 

9-0 

12-57 

8-03 

576 

2-514 

•6 

18-99 

12-13 

8-70 

3-798 

•1 

12-71 

8-12 

5-82 

2-541 

•7 

19-13 

12-22 

876 

3-826 

•2 

12-85 

8-21 

5-89 

2-569 

•8 

19-27 

12-31 

8-83 

3-854 

•3 

12-99 

8-30 

5-95 

2-597 

•9 

19-41 

12-40 

8-89 

3-882 

•4 

13-13 

8-38 

6-01 

2-625 

14-0 

19-55 

12-49 

8-96 

3-910 

•5 

13-27 

8-47 

6-08 

2-653 

•1 

19-69 

12-58 

9-02 

3-938 

•6 

13-41 

8-56 

6-14 

2-681 

•2 

19-83 

12-67 

9-08 

3-966 

•7 

13-55 

8-65 

6-21 

2-709 

•3 

19-97 

12-76 

9-15 

3-994 

•8 

13-69 

8-74 

6-27 

2737 

•4 

20-11 

12-84 

9-21 

4-022 

•9 

13-83 

8-83 

6-33 

2765 

•5 

20-25 

12-93 

9-28 

4-050 

10-0 

13-96 

8-92 

6-40 

2793 

•6 

20-39 

13-02 

9-34 

4-078 

•1 

14-10 

9-01 

6-46 

2-821 

•7 

20  -53 

13-11 

9-40 

4-105 

•2 

14-24 

9-10 

6'52 

2-849 

•8 

20-67 

13-20 

9-47 

4-133 

•3 

14-38 

9-19 

6-59 

2-877 

•9 

20-81 

13-29 

9-53 

4-161 

•4 

14-52 

9-28 

6-65 

2-905 

15-0 

20-95 

13-38 

9-60 

4-189 

•5 

14-66 

9-37 

6-72 

2-932 

•1 

21-09 

13-47 

9-66 

4-217 

•6 

14-80 

9-45 

678 

2-960 

•2 

21-23 

13-56 

9-72 

4-245 

7 

14-94 

9-54 

6-84 

2-988 

•3 

21-37 

13-65 

9-79 

4-273 

•8 

15-08 

9-63 

6-91 

3-016 

•4 

21-50 

13-74 

9-85 

4-301 

•9 

15-22 

9-72 

6-97 

3-044 

•5 

21-64 

13-83 

9-92 

4-329 

11-0 

15-36 

9-81 

7-04 

3-072 

•6 

21-78 

13-91 

9-98 

4-357 

•1 

15-50 

9-90 

7-10 

3-100 

•7 

21-92 

14-00 

10-04 

4-385 

•2 

15-64 

9-99 

7-16 

3-128 

•8 

22-06 

14-09 

10-11 

4-413 

•3 

15-78 

10-08 

7-23 

3-156 

•9 

22-20 

14-18 

10-17 

4-441 

•4 

15-92 

10-17 

7-29 

3-184 

16-0 

22-34 

14-27 

10-23 

4-469 

•5 

16-06 

10-26 

7-36 

3-212 

•1 

22-48 

14-36 

10-30 

4-496 

•6 

16-20 

10-35 

7-42 

3-240 

•2 

22-62 

14-45 

10-36 

4-524 

•7 

16-34 

10-44 

7-48 

3-268 

•3 

22-76 

14-54 

10-43 

4-552 

•8 

16-48 

10-53 

7-55 

3-296 

•4 

22-90 

14-63 

10-49 

4-550 

•9 

16-62 

10-61 

7-61 

3-324 

•5 

23-04 

14-72 

10-55 

4-608 

12-0 

1676 

1070 

7-68 

3-351 

•6 

23-18 

14-81 

10-62 

4-636 

•1 

16-90 

1079 

774 

3-379 

•7 

23-32 

14-89 

10-68 

4-664 

•2 

17-04 

10-88 

7*80 

3-407 

•8 

23-46 

14-98 

10-75 

4-692 

•3 

17-18 

10-97 

7-87 

3-435 

•9 

23-60 

15-07 

10-81 

4-720 

•4 

17-32 

11-06 

7-93 

3-463 

17-0 

23-74 

15-16 

10-87 

4748 

•5 

17-46 

11-15 

8-00 

3-491 

•1 

23-88 

15-25 

10-94 

4776 

•6 

17-60 

11-24 

8-06 

3-519 

•2 

24-02 

15-34 

11-00 

4-804 

PHOSPHATE   TABLE. 


123 


TABLE  FOR  PHOSPHATES — continued. 


Mg2P207 

Ca3P208 

CaP,0« 

P205 

P2 

Mg2P,07 

Ca3P208 

CaP206 

P205 

P2 

17-3 

24-16 

15-43 

11-07 

4-832 

21-3 

29-74 

19-00 

13-62 

5-949 

•4 

24-30 

15-52 

11-13 

4-860 

•4 

29-88 

19-09 

13-69 

5-977 

•5 

24-44 

15-61 

11-19 

4-887 

•5 

30-02 

19-18 

13-75 

6-005 

•6 

24-58 

15-70 

11-26 

4-915 

•6 

30-16 

19-27 

13-82 

6-033 

•7 

2472 

15-79 

11-32 

4-943 

•7 

30-30 

19-35 

13-88 

6-060 

•8 

24-86 

15-88 

11-39 

4-971 

•8 

30-44 

19-44 

13-94 

6-088 

•9 

25-00 

15-97 

11-45 

4-999 

•9 

30-58 

19-53 

14-01 

6-116 

18-0 

25-14 

16-05 

11-51 

5-027 

22-0 

30-72 

19-62 

14-07 

6-144 

•1 

25-27 

16-14 

11-58 

5-055 

•1 

30-86 

19-71 

14-14 

6-172 

•2 

25-41 

16-23 

11-64 

5-083 

•2 

31-00 

19-80 

14-20 

6-200 

•3 

25-55 

16-32 

11-71 

5-111 

•3 

31-14 

19-89 

14-26 

6-228 

•4 

25-69 

16-41 

11-77 

5-139 

•4 

31-28 

19-98 

14-33 

6-256 

•5 

25-83 

16-50 

11-83 

5-167 

•5 

31-42 

20-07 

14-39 

6-284 

•6 

25-97 

16-59 

11-90 

5-195 

•6 

31-56 

20-16 

14-46 

6-312 

•7 

26-11 

16-68 

11-96 

5-223 

•7 

31-70 

20-25 

14-52 

6-340 

•8 

26"25 

1677 

12-03 

5-250 

•8 

31-84 

20-34 

14-58 

6-368 

•9 

26  -39 

16-86 

12-09 

5-278 

•9 

31-98 

20-43 

14-65 

6-396 

19'0 

26-53 

16-95 

12-15 

5-306 

23-0 

32-12 

20-51 

1471 

6-423 

•1 

26-67 

17-04 

12-22 

5-334 

•1 

32-26 

20-60 

1478 

6-451 

•2 

26-81 

17-12 

12-28 

5-362 

•2 

32-40 

20-69 

14-84 

6-479 

•3 

26-95 

17-21 

12-35 

5-390 

•3 

32-54 

2078 

14-90 

6-507 

•4 

27-09 

17-30 

12-41 

5-418 

•4 

32-68 

20-87 

14-97 

6-535 

•5 

27  -23 

17-39 

12-47 

5-446 

•5 

32-82 

20-96 

15-03 

6-563 

•6 

27-37 

17-48 

12'54 

5-474 

•6 

32-96 

21-05 

15-10 

6-591 

7 

27-51 

17-57 

19-  -60 

5-502 

•7 

33-09 

21-14 

15-16 

6-619 

•8 

27-65 

17-66 

12-67 

5-530 

•8 

33-23 

21-23 

15-22 

6-647 

•9 

2779 

17-75 

1273 

5-558 

•9 

33-37 

21-32 

15-29 

6-675 

20-0 

27-93 

17-84 

12-79 

5-586 

24-0 

33-51 

21-41 

15-35 

6-703 

•1 

28-07 

17-93 

12-86 

5-614 

•1 

33-65 

21-50 

15-42 

6-731 

•2 

28-21 

18-02 

12-92 

5-642 

•2 

33-79 

21-58 

15-48 

6759 

•3 

28-35 

18-11 

12-99 

5-669 

•3 

33-93 

21-67 

15-54 

6-787 

•4 

28-49 

18-20 

13-05 

5-697 

•4 

34-07 

21-76 

15-61 

6-814 

•5 

28-63 

18-28 

13-11 

5-725 

•5 

34-21 

21-85 

15-67 

6-842 

•6 

2877 

18-37 

13-18 

5753 

•6 

34-35 

21-94 

1574 

6-870 

•7 

28-91 

18-46 

13-24 

5-781 

•7 

34*49 

22-03 

15-80 

6-898 

•8 

29-05 

18-55 

13-31 

5-809 

•8 

34-63 

22-12 

15-86 

6-926 

•9 

29-19 

18-64 

13-37 

5-837 

•9 

34-77 

22-21 

15-93 

6-954 

21-0 

29-32 

1873 

13  43 

5-865 

25-0 

34-91 

22-30 

15-99 

6-982 

1 

29-46 

18-82 

13-50 

5-893 

•1 

35-05 

22-39 

16-06 

7*010 

•2 

29-60 

18-91 

13-56 

5-921 

•2 

35-19 

22-48 

16-12 

7-038 

Mg2P207       -01        -02        -03         '04        "05 

•06 

•07 

•08 

•09 

Ca3P208        -01        '03         '04         '06        '07 

•08 

•10 

•11 

•13 

CaP206         -01         -02         '03         '04         '05 

•05 

•06 

,    -07 

•08 

P205             -01         -01         -02        -03        '03 

•04 

•05 

•05 

•06 

P2                 '003       '006       -008      -Oil      '014 

•017 

•020 

•022 

•025 

124 


PHOSPHATE    TABLE. 


TABLE  FOR  PHOSPHATES— continued. 


Mg2P207 

Ca3P208 

CaP206 

P205 

P2 

Mg2P207 

Ca3P208 

CaP206 

P204 

P2 

25-3 

35  '33 

22-57 

16-18 

7-066 

29-9 

41-75 

26-67 

19-13 

8-351 

•4 

35-47 

22-66 

16-25 

7-094 

30-0 

41-89 

26-76    19-19 

8-378 

•5 

35-61 

2274 

16-31 

71*22 

•1 

42-03 

26-85    19-25 

8-406 

•6 

35-75 

22-83 

16-38 

7-150 

•2 

42-17 

26-94    19-32 

8-434 

•7 

35-89 

22-92 

16-44 

7-178 

•3 

42-31 

27-03 

19-38 

8-462 

•8 

36-03 

23-01 

16-50 

7-205 

•4 

42-45 

2711 

19-45 

8-490 

•9 

36-17 

23-10 

16-57 

7-233 

•5 

42-59 

27-20 

19-51 

8-518 

26-0 

36-31 

23-19 

16-63 

7-261 

•6 

42-73 

27-29 

19-57 

8-546 

•1 

36-45 

23-28 

1670 

7-289 

•7 

42-87 

27-38 

19-64 

8-574 

•2 

36  -59 

23-37 

1676 

7-317 

•8 

43-01 

27-47 

19-70 

8-602 

•3 

36-73 

23-46 

16-82 

7-345 

•9 

43-15 

27-56 

19-77 

8-630 

•4 

36-87 

23-55 

16-89 

7-373 

31-0 

43-29 

27-65 

19-83 

8-658 

•5 

37-00 

23-64 

16-95 

7-401 

•1 

43-43 

2774 

19-89 

8-686 

•6 

37-14 

2372 

17-02 

7-429 

•2 

43-57 

27-83 

19-96 

8-714 

•7 

37-28 

23-81 

17-08 

7-457 

•3 

43-71 

27-92 

20-02 

8-742 

•8 

37-42 

23-90 

1714 

7-485 

•4 

43-85 

28-01 

20-09 

8769 

•9 

37-56 

23-99 

17-21 

7-513 

•5 

43-99 

28-10 

2015 

8797 

27-0 

37-70 

24-08 

17-27 

7-541 

•6 

44-13 

28-18 

20-21 

8-825 

•1 

37-84 

24-17 

17-33 

7-569 

•7 

44-27 

28-27 

20-28 

8-853 

•2 

37-98 

24-26 

17-40 

7-597 

•8 

44-41 

28-36 

20-34 

8-881 

•3 

38-12 

24-35 

17-46 

7-624 

•9 

44-55 

28-45 

20-41 

8-909 

•4 

38-26 

24-44 

17-53 

7-652 

32-0 

44-69 

28-54 

20-47 

8-937 

•6 

38-40 

24-53 

17-59 

7-680 

•1 

44-82 

28-63 

20-53 

8-965 

•6 

38-54 

24-62 

17-65 

7-708 

•2 

44-96 

28-72 

20-60 

8  '993 

7 

38-68 

24-71 

17-72 

7-736 

•3 

4510 

28-81 

20-66 

9-021 

•8 

38-82 

24-80 

17-78 

7764 

•4 

45-24 

28-90 

20-72 

9-049 

•9 

38-96 

24-88 

17-85 

7'792 

•5 

45-38 

28-99 

20-79 

9-077 

28-0 

39-10 

24-97 

17-91 

7-820 

•6 

45-52 

29-08 

20-85 

9-105 

•1 

39-24 

25-06 

17-97 

7-848 

•7 

45-66 

2917 

20-92 

9133 

•2 

39-38 

25-15 

18-04 

7-876 

•8 

45-80 

29-26 

20  -98 

9-160 

•3 

39-52 

25-24 

18-10 

7-904 

•9 

45-94 

29-34 

21-04 

9-188 

•4 

39-66 

25-33 

18-17 

7-932 

33-0 

46-08 

29-43 

21-11 

9-216 

•5 

39-80 

25-42 

18-23 

7-959 

•1 

46-22 

29-52 

21-17 

9'244 

•6 

39-94 

25-51 

18-29 

7-987 

•2 

46-36 

29-61 

21-24 

9-272 

7 

40-08 

25-60 

18-36 

8-015 

•3 

46-50 

2970 

21-30 

9-300 

•8 

40-22 

25-69 

18-42 

8-043 

•4 

46-64 

29-79 

21-36 

9-328 

•9 

40-36 

25-78 

18-49 

8-071 

•5 

4678 

29-88 

21-43 

9-356 

29-0 

40-50 

25-87 

18-55 

8-099 

•6 

46-92 

29-97 

21-49 

9-384 

•1 

40-64 

25-95 

18-61 

8-127 

•7 

47-06 

30-06 

21-56 

9-412 

•2 

40-78 

26-04 

18-68 

8-155 

•8 

47-20 

3015 

21-62 

9-440 

•3 

40-92 

26-13 

18-74 

8-183 

•9 

47-34 

30-24 

21-68 

9-468 

•4 

41-06 

26-22 

18-81 

8-211 

34-0 

47-48 

30-33 

2175 

9-496 

•5 

41-19 

26-31 

18-87 

8-239 

•1 

47-62 

30-41 

21-81 

9-523 

•6 

41-33 

26-40 

18-93 

8-267 

•2 

4776 

30-50 

21-88 

9-551 

7 

41-47 

26-49 

19-00 

8-295 

•3 

47-90 

30-59 

21-94 

9-579 

•8 

41-61 

26-58 

19-06 

8-323 

•4 

48-04 

30-68 

22-00 

9-607 

PHOSPHATE    TABLE. 


125 


TABLE  FOR  PHOSPHATES— continued. 


Mg2P207 

Ca3P208 

CaP206 

P205 

P2 

Mg2P207 

Ca3P208 

CaP206 

P205 

P2 

34-5 

48-18 

30-77 

22-07 

9-635 

38-5 

53-76 

34-34 

24-63 

10752 

•6 

48-32 

30-86 

22-13 

9-663 

•6 

53-90 

34-43 

24-69 

10-780 

•7 

48-46 

30-95 

22-20 

9-691 

•7 

54-04 

34-52 

24-75 

10-808 

•8 

48-60 

31-04 

22-26 

9719 

•8 

54-18 

34-61 

24-82 

10-836 

•9 

4874 

31-13 

22-32 

9747 

•9 

54-32 

34-70 

24-88 

10-864 

35-0 

48-87 

31-22 

22-39 

9-775 

39-0 

54-46 

34-78 

24-95 

10-892 

•1 

49-01 

31-31 

22-45 

9-803 

•1 

54-60 

34-87 

25-01 

10-920 

•2 

49-15 

31-40 

22-52 

9-831 

•2 

54-74 

34-96 

25-07 

10-948 

•3 

49-29 

31-49 

22-58 

9-859 

•3 

54-88 

35-05 

25-14 

10-976 

•4 

49-43 

31-57 

22-64 

9-887 

•4 

55-02 

3514 

25-20 

11-004 

•5 

49-57 

31-66 

2271 

9-914 

•5 

55-16 

35-23 

25-27 

11-032 

•6 

4971 

31-75 

22-77 

9-942 

•6 

55-30 

35-32 

25-33 

11-060 

7 

49-85 

31-84 

22-84 

9-970 

•7 

55-44 

35-41 

25-39 

11-087 

•8 

49-99 

31-93 

22-90 

9-998 

•8 

55-58 

35-50 

25-46 

11-115 

•9 

50-13 

32-02 

22-96 

10-026 

•9 

55-72 

35-59 

25-52 

11-143 

36-0 

50-27 

32-11 

23-03 

10-054 

40-0 

55-86 

35-68 

25-59 

11-171 

•1 

50-41 

32-20 

23-09 

10-082 

•1 

56-00 

3577 

25-65 

11-199 

•2 

50-55 

32-29 

23-16 

lo-no 

•2 

56-14 

35-85 

25-71 

11-227 

•3 

50-69 

32-38 

23-22 

10-138 

•3 

56-28 

35-94 

25-78 

11-255 

•4 

50-83 

32-47 

23-28 

10-166 

•4 

56-42 

36-03 

25-84 

11-283 

•5 

50-97 

32-55 

23-35 

10-194 

•5 

56-55 

36-12 

25-91 

11-311 

•6 

51-11 

32-64 

23-41 

10-222 

•6 

56-69 

36-21 

25-97 

11-339 

7 

51  -25 

3273 

23-48 

10-250 

•7 

56-83 

36-30 

26-03 

11-367 

•8 

51-39 

32-82 

23-54 

10-278 

•8 

56-97 

36-39 

26-10 

11-395 

•9 

51-53 

32-91 

23-60 

10-306 

•9 

57-11 

36-48 

26-16 

11-423 

37-0 

51-67 

33  '00 

23-67 

10-333 

41-0 

57-25 

36-57 

26-23 

11-451 

•1 

51-81 

33-09 

23-73 

10-361 

•1 

57-39 

36-66 

26-29 

11-478 

•2 

51-95 

33-18 

23-80 

10-389 

•2 

57-53 

36-75 

26-35 

11-506 

•3 

52-09 

33-27 

23-86 

10-417 

•3 

57-67 

36-84 

26-42 

11-534 

•4 

52-23 

33*36 

23-92 

10-445 

•4 

57-81 

36-93 

26-48 

11-562 

•5 

52-37 

33-45 

23-99 

10-473 

•5 

57-95 

37-01 

26-55 

11-590 

•6 

52-51 

33-54 

24-05 

10-501 

•6 

58-09 

37-10 

26-61 

11-618 

7 

52-64 

33-62 

24-12 

10-529 

•7 

58-23 

37-19 

26-67 

11-646 

•8 

52-78 

33-71 

24-18 

10-557 

•8 

58-37 

37-28 

2674 

11-674 

•9 

52-92 

33-80 

24"24 

10-585 

•9 

58-51 

37-37 

26-80 

11-702 

38-0 

53-06 

33-89 

24-31 

10-613 

42-0 

58  -65 

37-46 

26-87 

11-730 

•1 

53-20 

33-98 

24-37 

10-641 

•1 

5879 

37-55 

26-93 

11-758 

•2 

53-34 

34-07 

24-43 

10-669 

•2 

58-93 

37-64 

26-99 

11-786 

•3 

53-48 

34-16 

24-50 

10-696 

•3 

59-07 

37-73 

27-06 

11-814 

•4 

53-62 

34-25 

24-56 

10-724 

•4 

59-21 

37-82 

2712 

11-842 

MgaPa07       '01        -02        -03        -04        -05 

•06 

•07 

•08 

•09 

Ca,P208        -01        -03        -04        '06        "07 

•08 

•10 

•11 

•13 

CaP206         -01         -02         -03         "04         '05 

•05 

•06 

•07 

•08 

P206              -01         -01         -02         -03         '03 

•04 

•05 

•05 

•06 

P2                 '003       -006       -008      -Oil       -014 

•017 

•020 

•022 

•025 

126 


PHOSPHATE    TABLE. 


TABLE  FOR  PHOSPHATES — continued. 


Mg,P207 

Ca,P208 

CaP206 

P205 

P2 

Mfr2P,07 

Ca3P208 

CaP206 

P206 

P» 

42-5 

59-35 

37-91 

27-19 

11-869 

47-1 

6577 

42-01 

30-13 

13-154 

•6 

59-49 

38-00 

27-25 

11-897 

•2 

65-91 

42*10 

30-19 

13-132 

7 

59-63 

38-08 

27-31 

11-925 

•3 

66-05 

42-19 

30-26 

13-210 

•8 

5977 

38-17 

27-38 

11-953 

•4 

66-19 

42-28 

30-32 

13-238 

•9 

59-91 

38-26 

27-44 

11-981 

•5 

66-33 

42-37 

30-38 

13-266 

43-0 

60-05 

38-35 

27-51 

12-009 

•6 

66-47 

42-45 

30-45 

13-294 

•1 

60-18 

38-44 

27-57 

12-037 

7 

66-61 

42-54 

30-51 

13-322 

•2 

60-32 

38-53 

27-63 

12-065 

•8 

66-75 

42-63 

30-58 

13-350 

•3 

60-46 

38-62 

2770 

12-093 

•9 

66-89 

42-72 

30-64 

13-378 

•4 

60-60 

3871 

2776 

12-121 

48-0 

67-03 

42-81 

30-70 

13-405 

•5 

60-74 

38-80 

27-83 

12-149 

•1 

67-17 

42-90 

30-77 

13-433 

•6 

60-88 

38-89 

27-89 

12-177 

•2 

67-31 

42-99 

30-83 

13-461 

7 

61-02 

38-98 

27-95 

12-205 

•3 

67-45 

43-08 

30-90 

13-489 

•8 

6116 

39-07 

28-02 

12-232 

•4 

67-59 

43-17 

30-96 

13-517 

•9 

61-30 

39-16 

28-08 

12-260 

•5 

6773 

43-26 

31-02 

13-545 

44-0 

61-44 

39-24 

28-14 

12-288 

•6 

67-87 

43-35 

31-09 

13-573 

•1 

61-58 

39-33 

28-21 

12-316 

•7 

68-00 

43-44 

31-15 

13-601 

•2 

61-72 

39-42 

28-27 

12-344 

•8 

68-14 

43-53 

31-22 

13-629 

•3 

61-86 

39-51 

28-34 

12-372 

•9 

68-28 

43-61 

31-28 

13-657 

•4 

62-00 

39-60 

28-40 

12-400 

49-0 

68-42 

4370 

31-34 

13-685 

•5 

62-14 

39-69 

28-46 

12-428 

•1 

68-56 

4379 

31-41 

13-713 

•6 

62-28 

39-78 

28-53 

12-456 

•2 

6870 

43-88 

31-47 

13741 

7 

62-42 

39-87 

28-59 

12-484 

•3 

68-84 

43-97 

31-53 

13769 

•8 

62-56 

39-96 

28-66 

12-512 

•4 

68-98 

44-06 

31-60 

13-796 

•9 

6270 

40-05 

2872 

12-540 

•5 

69-12 

44-15 

31-66 

13-824 

45-0 

62-84 

40-14 

2878 

12-568 

•6 

69-26 

44-24 

3173 

13-852 

•1 

62-98 

40-23 

28-85 

12-596 

7 

69-40 

44-33 

31-79 

13-880 

•2 

63-12 

40-31 

28-91 

12-624 

•8 

69-54 

44-42 

31-85 

13-908 

•3 

63-26 

40-40 

28-98 

12-651 

•9 

69-68 

44-51 

31-92 

13-936 

•4 

63-40 

40-49 

29-04 

12-679 

50-0 

69-82 

44-60 

31-98 

13-964 

•5 

63-54 

40-58 

29-10 

12707 

•1 

69-96 

44-68 

32-05 

13-992 

•6 

63-68 

40-67 

29-17 

12-735 

•2 

70-10 

4477 

32-11 

14-020 

7 

63-82 

4076 

29-23 

12763 

•3 

70-24 

44-86 

32-17 

14-048 

•8 

63-96 

40-85 

29-30 

12791 

•4 

70-38 

44-95 

32-24 

14-076 

•9 

64-10 

40-94 

29-36 

12-819 

•5 

70-52 

45-04 

32-30 

14-104 

46-0 

64-23 

41-03 

29-42 

12-847 

•6 

70-66 

45-13 

32-37 

14-132 

•1 

64-37 

41-12 

29-49 

12-875 

•7 

70-80 

45-22 

32-43 

14-160 

2 

64-51 

41-21 

29-55 

12-903 

•8 

70-94 

45-31 

32-49 

14-187 

•3 

64-65 

41-30 

29-62 

12-931 

•9 

71-08 

45-40 

32-56 

14-215 

•4 

64-79 

41-38 

29-68 

12-959 

51-0 

71-22 

45-49 

32-62 

14-243 

•5 

64-93 

41-47 

2974 

12-987 

•1 

71-36 

45-58 

32-69 

14-271 

•6 

65-07 

41-56 

29-81 

13-015 

•2 

71-50 

45-67 

3275 

14-299 

7 

65-21 

41-65 

29-87 

13-042 

•3 

71-64 

45-76 

32-81 

14-327 

•8 

65-35 

4174 

29-94 

13-070 

•4 

7178 

45-84 

32-88 

14-355 

•9 

65-49 

41-83 

30-00 

13-098 

•5 

71-91 

45-93 

32-94 

14-383 

47-0 

65-63 

41-92 

30-06 

13-126 

•6 

72-05 

46-02 

33-01 

14-411 

PHOSPHATE   TABLE. 


127 


TABLE  FOR  PHOSPHATES — continued. 


Mg2P207 

Ca3P208 

CaP206 

P205 

P2 

Mg2P207 

Ca3P208 

CaP206 

P205 

P* 

517 

72-19 

46-11 

33-07 

14-439 

557 

7778 

49-68 

35-63 

15-556 

•8 

72-33 

46-20 

83-13 

14-467 

•8 

77-92 

4977 

35-69 

15-584 

•9 

72-47 

46-29 

33-20 

14-495 

•9 

78-06 

49-86 

3576 

15-612 

52-0 

72-61 

46-38 

33-26 

14-523 

56-0 

78-20 

49-95 

35'82 

15-640 

•1 

72-75 

46-47 

33-33 

14-551 

•1 

78-34 

50-04 

35-88 

15-668 

•2 

72-89 

46-56 

33-39 

14-579 

•2 

78-48 

5012 

35-95 

15-696 

•3 

73-03 

46-65 

33-45 

14-606 

•3 

78-62 

50-21 

36-01 

15724 

•4 

73-17 

46-74 

33-52 

14-634 

•4 

7876 

50-30 

36-08 

15751 

•5 

73-31 

46-83 

33-58 

14-662 

•5 

78-90 

50-39 

36-14 

15-779 

•6 

73-45 

46-91 

33-65 

14-690 

•6 

79-04 

50-48 

36-20 

15-807 

7 

73-59 

47-00 

3371 

14718 

•7 

79-18 

50-57 

36-27 

15-835 

•8 

7373 

47-09 

33-77 

14746 

•8 

79-32 

50-66 

36-33 

15-863 

•9 

73-87 

47-18 

33-84 

14774 

•9 

79-46 

5075 

36-40 

15-891 

53-0 

74-01 

47-27 

33-90 

14-802 

57'0 

79-60 

50-84 

36-46 

15-919 

•1 

74-15 

47-36 

33-97 

14-830 

•1 

7974 

50-93 

36-52 

15-947 

•2 

74-29 

47-45 

34-03 

14-858 

•2 

79-87 

51-02 

36-59 

15-975 

•3 

74-43 

47-54 

34-09 

14-886 

•3 

80-01 

51-11 

36-65 

16-003 

•4 

74-57 

47-63 

34-16 

14-914 

•4 

80-15 

51-20 

3672 

16-031 

•5 

74-71 

4772 

34-22 

14-941 

•5 

80-29 

51-28 

36-78 

16-059 

•6 

74-85 

47-81 

34-29 

14-969 

•6 

80-43 

51-37 

36-84 

16-087 

7 

74-99 

47-90 

34-35 

14-997 

7 

80-57 

51-46 

36-91 

16-115 

•8 

75-13 

47-99 

34-41 

15-025 

•8 

80-71 

51-55 

36-97 

16-142 

•9 

75-27 

48-07 

34-48 

15-053 

•9 

80-85 

51-64 

37-04 

16-170 

54-0 

75-41 

4816 

34-54 

15-081 

58-0 

80-99 

5173 

37-10 

16-198 

•1 

75-55 

48-25 

34-61 

15109 

•1 

81-13 

51-82 

37-16 

16-226 

•2 

75-69 

48-34 

34-67 

15-137 

•2 

81-27 

51-91 

37-23 

16-254 

•3 

75-83 

48-43 

34-73 

15-165 

•3 

81-41 

52-00 

37-29 

16-282 

•4 

75-97 

48-52 

34-80 

15-193 

•4 

81-55 

52-09 

37-36 

16-310 

•5 

76-10 

48-61 

34-86 

15-221 

•5 

81-69 

5218 

37'42 

16-338 

•6 

76-24 

4870 

34-93 

15-249 

•6 

81-83 

52-27 

37-48 

16-366 

7 

76-38 

4879 

34-99 

15-277 

•7 

81-97 

52-35 

37-55 

16-394 

•8 

76-52 

48-88 

35-05 

15-305 

•8 

82-11 

52-44 

37-61 

16-422 

•9 

76-66 

48-97 

35-12 

15-333 

•9 

82-25 

52-53 

37-68 

16-450 

55-0 

76-80 

49-06 

35-18 

15-360 

59-0 

82-39 

52-62 

3774 

16-478 

•1 

76-94 

4914 

35-24 

15-388 

•1 

82-53 

52-71 

37-80 

16-505 

•2 

77-08 

49-23 

35-31 

15-416 

•2 

82-67 

52-80 

37-87 

16-533 

•3 

77-22 

49-32 

35-37 

15-444 

•3 

82-81 

52-89 

37-93 

16-561 

•4 

77-36 

49-41 

35-44 

15-472 

•4 

82-95 

52-98 

38-00 

16-589 

•5 

77-50 

49-50 

35-50 

15-500 

•5 

83-09 

53-07 

38-06 

16-617 

•6 

77-64 

49-59 

35-56 

15-528 

•6 

83-23 

53-16 

38-12 

16-645 

MgoP207       '01         -02        -03        -04         -05 

•06 

•07 

•08 

•09 

Ca3P208        -01         -03        -04        -06        '07 

•08 

•10 

•11 

•13 

CaP206         -01         -02        -03         '04         '05 

•05 

•06 

•07 

•08 

P20fi             -01         -01         -02         -03        -03 

•04 

•05 

•05 

•06 

P2                 -003       -006      -008       "Oil       -014 

•017 

•020 

•022 

•025 

128  CONVERSION    OP    NITROGEN    INTO    AMMONIA. 

TABLE  FOR  PHOSPHATES — continued. 


Mg2P207 

Ca3P208 

CaP206 

P-205 

P2 

Mg2P.207 

Ca3P208  CaP20,j 

P205 

P2 

597 

83-37 

53'25 

38-19 

16-673 

61-0 

85-18 

54-41 

39-02 

17-036 

•8 

83-51 

53-34 

38-25 

16701 

62 

86-58 

55-30 

39-66 

17-315 

•9 

83-65 

53-43 

38-32 

16729 

63 

87-97 

56-19 

40-30 

17-595 

60-0 

8378 

53-51 

38-38 

16757 

64 

89-37 

57-08 

40-94 

17-874 

•1 

83-92 

53'dO 

38-44 

16785 

65 

9077 

57-97 

41-58 

18-153 

•2 

84-06 

53-69 

38-51 

16-813 

66 

92-16 

58-87 

4222 

18-433 

•3 

84-20 

5378 

38-f>7 

16-841 

67 

93-56 

59-76 

42-86 

18-712 

•4 

84-34 

53-87 

38-63 

16-869 

68 

94-96 

60-65 

43-50 

18-991 

•5 

84-48 

53-96 

3870 

16-898 

69 

96-35 

61-54 

44-14 

19-270 

•6 

84-62 

54-05 

3876 

16-924 

70 

9775 

62-43 

4478 

19-550 

7 

8476 

54-14 

38-83 

16-952 

71 

99-14 

63-33 

45-41 

19-829 

•8 

84-90 

54-23 

38-89 

16-980 

100-00 

63-87 

45-81 

20-000 

•9 

85  04 

54-32 

38-95 

17-008 

TABLE  FOR  THE  CONVERSION  OF  NITROGEN  INTO  AMMONIA  AND 
ALBUMINOIDS  (  =  Nx6'25). 


Albumin- 

N. 

NH3. 

Albumin- 

N. 

NH3. 

Albumin- 

N. 

NHa. 

0 

ids 

c 

>ids 

( 

>ids 

(Nx6"25). 

(NX6-25). 

(Nx6'25). 

o-i 

0-12 

0-63 

1-9 

2-31 

11-88 

3-7 

4-49 

23-13 

•2 

•24 

1-25 

2-0 

2-43 

12-50 

•8 

4-61 

23-75 

•3 

•36 

1-88 

•1 

2-55 

13-13 

•9 

473 

24-38 

•4 

•49 

2-50 

•2 

2-67 

1375 

4-0 

4-8 

6 

25  00 

•5 

•61 

3-13 

•3 

279 

14-38 

•1 

4-9 

S 

25-63 

•6 

73 

3-75 

•4 

2-91 

15-00 

•2 

5-10 

26-25 

7 

•85 

4-38 

•5 

3-04 

15-63 

•3 

5-22 

26-88 

•8 

•97 

500 

•6 

3  16 

16-25 

•4 

5-34 

27-50 

•9 

1-09 

5'63 

7 

3-28 

16-88 

•5 

5-46 

28-13 

i-o 

1-21 

6-25 

•8 

3-40 

17-50 

•6 

5-58 

28-75 

•1 

1-34 

6-88 

•9 

3-52 

1813 

7 

571 

29-38 

•2 

1-46 

7-50 

3-0 

3-64 

18-75 

•8 

5-83 

30-00 

•3 

1-58 

8-13 

•1 

376 

19-38 

•9 

5  95 

30-63 

•4 

170 

875 

•2 

3-88 

20-00 

5-0 

6-08 

31-25 

•5 

1-82 

9-38 

•3 

4-01 

20-63 

•1 

6-20 

31-88 

•6 

1-94 

10-00 

•4 

4-13 

21  25 

•2 

6-32 

32-50 

7 

2-06 

10-63 

•5 

4"25 

21-88 

•3 

6-44 

33-13 

•8 

2-19 

11-25 

•6 

4-37 

22-50 

•4 

6-57 

3375 

N 

•01 

•02 

•03 

'04 

•05 

•06 

•07 

•08 

•09 

NH3 

•01 

•02 

•04 

•05 

•06 

•07 

•09 

•10 

•11 

Albuminoids 

•06 

•13 

•19 

•25 

•31 

•38 

•44 

•50 

•56 

CONVERSION    OF    NITROGEN    INTO    AMMONIA. 


129 


TABLE  FOR  THE  CONVERSION  OF  NITROGEN  INTO  AMMONIA  AND 
ALBUMINOIDS— continued. 


Albumin- 

Albumin- 

Albumin- 

N. 

NH3. 

oids 

N. 

NH3. 

oids 

N. 

NH3. 

oids 

(Nx6-25). 

(Nx6-26). 

(NX6-25). 

5-5 

6-69 

34'38 

9-1 

11-06 

56  88 

12-6 

15-32 

7875 

•6 

6-81 

35-00 

•2 

11-19 

57-50 

•7 

15-44 

79-38 

7 

6'93 

35-63 

•3 

11-31 

58-13 

•8 

15-56 

80-00 

•8 

7-05 

36-25 

•4 

11-43 

58-75 

•9 

15-68 

80-63 

•9 

7-17 

36-88 

•5 

11-55 

59-38 

130 

15-81 

81-25 

6-0 

7-30 

37-50 

•6 

11-67 

60-00 

•1 

15-93 

81-88 

•1 

7'42 

38-13 

•7 

11-79 

60-63 

•2 

16-05 

82-50 

•2 

7'54 

38-75 

•8 

11-92 

61  25 

•3 

16-17 

83-13 

•3 

7'66 

39  38 

•9 

12-04 

61-88 

•4 

16-29 

8375 

•4 

778 

40-00 

10-0 

1-2-16 

62-50 

•5 

16-41 

84-38 

•5 

7-90 

40-63 

•1 

12-28 

63-13 

•6 

16  T  4 

85-00 

•6 

8-02 

41  -25 

•2 

12-40 

6375 

•7 

16-66 

85-63 

7 

8-15 

41-88 

•3 

12-52 

64'38 

•8 

16-78 

86-25 

•8 

8-27 

42-50 

•4 

12-64 

65-00 

•9 

16  90 

86-88 

•9 

8-39 

43-13 

•5 

12-77 

65  63 

14-0 

17-02 

87-50 

7-0 

8-51 

43-75 

•6 

12-89 

66-25 

•1 

17-14 

88  13 

•1 

8-63 

44-38 

•7 

13-01 

66-88 

•2 

17-27 

8875 

'2 

8  75 

45-00 

•8 

13  13 

67'50 

•3 

17-39 

89-38 

•3 

8-88 

45-63 

•9 

13-25 

68-13 

•4 

17'51 

90-00 

•4 

9-00 

46-25 

11-0 

13-37 

6875 

•5 

17-63 

90-63 

-5 

9  12 

46  88 

•1 

13-50 

69-38 

•6 

1775 

91-25 

•6 

9'24 

47-50 

•2 

13-62 

70-00 

7 

17-87 

91-88 

7 

9'36 

48-13 

•3 

1374 

70-63 

•8 

17-99 

92-50 

•8 

9  48 

48-75 

•4 

13-86 

71-25 

•9 

18-12 

93-13 

•9 

9'61 

49-38 

•5 

13  98 

71  88 

15-0 

18-24 

9375 

8-0 

9-73 

50-00 

•6 

14-10 

72-50 

•1 

18-36 

94-38 

•1 

9'85 

50  -63 

•7 

14  23 

73-13 

•2 

18-48 

95-00 

•2 

9-97 

51-25 

•8 

14-35 

7375 

•3 

18'60 

95  63 

•3 

10-09 

51-88 

•9 

14-47 

74-38 

•4 

18-72 

96-25 

•4 

10-21 

52-50 

12-0 

14-59 

75-00 

•5 

18-85 

96-88 

•5 

10-33 

53-13 

•1 

14-71 

75-63 

•6 

18-97 

97-50 

•6 

10-46 

53-75 

•2 

14-83 

76-25 

•7 

19-09 

98-13 

•7 

10-58 

54-38 

•3 

14-95 

76-88 

•8 

19-21 

98-75 

•8 

1070 

55-00 

•4 

15-08 

77-50 

•9 

19-33 

99-38 

•9 

10-82 

55-63 

•5 

15-20 

78-13 

16-0 

19-45 

100-00 

9-0 

10-94 

56-25 

N                              -01 

•02      -03      "04      -05 

•06      -07      -08      -09 

NH3                        -01 

•02      -04      -05      '06 

•07      -09      -10      -11 

Albuminoids           '06 

•13      -19      '25      '31 

•38      -44      '50      -56 

130 


KJBLDAHL   TABLE. 


TABLE  FOR  KJELDAHL  PROCESS  :  1  GRAM  OF  SUBSTANCE 
BEING  USED. 

1  c.c.  N/5  acid  =  0-002802  gram  N      (log.  3*44747) 
=  0-003407  gram  NH3  (log.  3 "53237). 


c.c.  N/5 

c.c.  N/5 

„ 

c.c.  N/5 

„ 

acid 

%  N. 

%  NH3. 

acic 

l 

"/  NHo. 

acic 

1 

%NH3. 

used. 

used. 

used. 

1 

0-28 

0-34 

25 

7 

•01 

8-52 

I 
49 

13-73 

16-69 

2 

0-56 

0-68 

26 

7 

•29 

8'86 

50 

14-01 

17-04 

3 

0-84 

1-02 

27 

7 

•57 

9'20 

51 

14 

•29 

17-38 

4 

1-12 

1-36 

28 

7 

•85 

9-54 

52 

M 

•57 

17-72 

5 

1-40 

1-70 

29 

8 

•13 

9-88 

53 

14 

•85 

18-06 

6 

1-68 

2-04 

30 

8 

•41 

10-22 

54 

16 

•13 

18-40 

7 

1-96 

2-38 

31 

8 

•69 

10-56 

55 

15 

•41 

18-74 

8 

2-24 

2-73 

32 

8 

•97 

10-90 

56 

15-69 

19-08 

9 

2-52 

3-07 

33 

9 

•25 

11-24 

67 

15 

•97 

19-42 

10 

2-80 

3-41 

34 

9 

•53 

11-58 

58 

16-25 

19-76 

11 

3'08 

3-75 

35 

9 

•81 

11-92 

59 

16 

•53 

20-10 

12 

3-36 

4-09 

36 

10 

•09 

12-27 

60 

16 

•81 

20-44 

13 

3'64 

4-43 

37 

10 

•37 

12-61 

61 

17 

•09 

20-78 

14 

3-92 

4-77 

38 

10 

•65 

12-95 

62 

17 

•37 

21  -12 

15 

4-20 

5-11 

39 

10 

•93 

13-29 

63 

17 

•65 

21  46 

16 

4-48 

5-45 

•     40 

11 

•21 

13-63 

64 

17 

•93 

21-80 

17 

4-76 

5-79 

41 

11 

•49 

13-97 

65 

18 

•21 

22-15 

18 

5-04 

6-13 

42 

11 

•77 

14-31 

66 

18-49 

22-49 

19 

5'32 

6-47 

43 

12-05 

14-65 

67 

18 

•77 

22-83 

20 

5-60 

6-81 

44 

12 

•33 

14-99 

68 

19 

•05 

23-17 

21 

5-88 

7-15 

45 

12 

•61 

15-33 

69 

19 

•33 

23-51 

22 

6-16 

7-50 

46 

12 

•89 

15-67 

70 

19 

•61 

23-85 

23 

6-44 

7-84 

47 

13 

•17 

16-01 

71 

19 

89 

24-19 

24 

672 

8-18 

48 

13 

•45 

16-35 

72 

20-17 

24-53 

c.c.  N/5  acid          O'l 

0-2 

0-3 

0'4      0-5 

0-6 

07 

0-8      0-9 

%  N                        -03 

•06 

•08 

•11      -14 

•17 

•20 

•22      -25 

%  NH3                   -03 

•07 

•10 

•14      -17 

•20 

•24 

•27      -31 

i 

FACTORS   FOR   CALCULATING   NITROGENOUS   SUBSTANCES.        131 

FACTORS  FOR  CALCULATING  VARIOUS  NITROGENOUS  SUBSTANCES. 


Multiply 
Nitrogen  by 

Logarithm. 

Authority. 

Albuminoids  . 

6'25 

079588 

Albumin 

6-39 

0-80550 

Richmond 

Casein   .... 

6-39 

ii 

» 

Proteins  of  cheese  . 

6-39 

ii 

» 

,,        milk    . 

6-39 

»» 

ii 

dried  milk  . 

6-87 

0-83696 

)  5 

Gelatin  .... 

5-5 

074036 

Allen  and  Searle  : 

Mitchell 

Proteins  in  meat-extract 

6-33 

0-80140 

Allen  and  Searle 

Hide    substance    (from 

nitrogen  in  leather)   . 

5'62 

0-74958 

J.  G.  Parker 

The  comparative  values  of  feeding  stuffs*  are  frequently  expressed  in 
terms  of  "  food  units,"  which  are  calculated  as  follows  : — 

Multiply  the  sum  of  the  percentages  of  oil  and  albuminoids  by  2^ 
and  add  the  percentage  of  "digestible  carbohydrates."  The  result 
gives  the  percentage  of  food  units. 

Exs.  Two  linseed  cakes  contained 


A 
14-36 

27-42 
32-59 


B 

10-06 
28-50 
34-13 


Oil 

Albuminoids  .... 
Digestible  carbohydrates 
Hence  we  have 

A     14-36 

27-42 

Food  Units. 

41-78  x2£t  =  104-45 +  32-59  =       137 

B     10-06 
28-50 

38-56  X2£  =  96-40  +  34-13=    ISO'S. 
The  relative  values  of  A  and  B  are  thus 

137  :  130-5,  or  1-05  :  1. 

It  must  be  specially  noticed  that  "  food  units  "  express  the  total 
intrinsic  value  of  a  feeding  stuff — both  as  food,  and  as  manure  after 
it  has  passed  through  the  animal. 

*  Dyer,  Fertilizers  and  Feeding  Stuffs,  p.  81. 

t  Best  done  by  using  the  equivalent  fraction  ^,  thus  417'8=104'45. 


132  OILS,    FATS,    AND    WAXES. 

OILS,  FATS,  AND  WAXES. 

Oils  are  neutral  bodies  of  more  or  less  viscous  consistence,  liquid 
at  the  ordinary  temperature,  combustible,  lighter  than  water  and 
insoluble  in  it,  sometimes  soluble  in  alcohol,  and  always  soluble  in 
ether.  Oils  are  classified  as  follows : — (i)  fatty  or  fixed  oils ;  (ii) 
essential  or  volatile  oils  ;  and  (iii)  mineral  oils.  The  fatty  or  fixed 
oils  are  simply  liquid  fats,  and,  in  contradistinction  to  the  members 
of  the  second  class,  decompose  when  heated.  Essential  oils  have 
strong  and  characteristic  odours,  and  are  vapourizable  without 
decomposition,  usually  with  little  or  no  residue.  Many  essential 
oils  consist  of  hydrocarbons  or  other  fluid  bodies  mixed  with  solid 
oxidized  compounds.  On  cooling  such,  or  by  evaporation,  the 
latter  often  crystallize  out,  the  solid  thus  separating  being  termed 
the  stearoptene,  whilst  the  liquid  is  called  the  elaeoptene.  Mineral 
oils  form  a  class  somewhat  by  themselves,  and  include  petroleum 
and  oils  distilled  from  peat,  shale,  etc. :  they  consist  of  mixtures 
of  hydrocarbons. 

Fats  are  the  (neutral)  triglycerides  of  the  higher  fatty  acids.  A 
great  many  fats  may  be  considered  as  mixtures  of  the  triglycerides 
of  several  fatty  acids,  as  of  tripalmitin,  tristearin  and  triolein  ; 
but  mixed  esters  of  glycerol  may  also  exist  in  fats,  e.g.,  oleo- 
palmito-butyrate  in  butter-fat. 

Waxes  are  esters  formed  by  the  union  of  mono-  or  di-hydric 
alcohols  with  the  higher  fatty  acids.  The  waxes,  therefore,  do  not 
contain  glycerol,  and  consequently,  on  being  heated,  do  not  emit 
the  odour  of  acrolein,  neither  do  they,  on  keeping,  become  rancid, 
owing  to  the  stability  of  the  esters  of  which  they  consist.  Waxes 
are  derived  from  both  the  animal  and  the  vegetable  kingdoms, 
beeswax  being  typical  of  the  former,  and  carnaiiba  wax  of  the 
latter. 

Japan  wax  consists  chiefly  of  glycerides,  and  hence  is  classed 
among  "  fats "  :  whilst  sperm  oil  contains  only  a  small  amount  of 
glycerides,  but  a  large  percentage  of  unsaponifiable  matter,  and  is 
classed  among  "waxes." 


(1)  The  acid  value  is  the  measure  of  the  amount  of  free  fatty 
acids  in  a  fat  or  wax.     It  gives  the  number  of    milligrams    of 
potassium  hydroxide  required  to  neutralize  the  free  fatty  acids  in 
one  gram  of  a  fat  or  wax. 

(2)  The  saponification  value,  or  Kottstorfer  value,  is  the  number  of 
milligrams  of  potassium  hydroxide  required  to  saponify  completely 
one  gram  of  a  fat  or  wax  (or  gives  grams  of   KHO  required  for 
1000  grams  of  a  fat  or  wax). 

(3)  The  ester  value  gives  the  number  of  milligrams  of  potassium 
hydroxide  required  for  the  saponification  of  the  neutral  esters  in 
one  gram  of  a  fat  or  wax. 


OILS,    FATS,    AND   WAXES.  133 

If  a  fat  contains  no  free  fatty  acids,  (3)  is  identical  with  (2)  ;  but 
in  the  more  usual  case,  in  which  small  quantities  of  free  fatty 
acids  are  present,  (3)  is  obtained  by  subtracting  (1)  from  (2). 

(4)  The  iodine  value  gives  the  percentage  of  iodine  absorbed  by  a 
fat  or  wax. 

(5)  The  Hehner  value  gives  the  percentage  of  insoluble  fatty  acids 
in  a  fat  or  wax.     For  most  fats  it  lies  between  95  and  97. 

(6)  The  Reichert-Meissl  value  gives  the  number  of  c.c.  of  deci- 
normal    alkali    (barium    or    potassium    hydroxide)    required    to 
neutralize  the  distillate  of  volatile  acids  obtained  from  5  grams  of 
a  fat  or  wax  by  the  Reichert  distillation  process. 


134      TABLES  OP  CONSTANTS  OP  OILS,  FATS,  AND  WAXES. 


fl 


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TABLES    OF    CONSTANTS    OF    OILS,    FATS,    AND    WAXES.        135 


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136          TABLES    OP   CONSTANTS    OF    OILS,    FATS,    AND    WAXES. 


utyro-refracto- 
meter  (Zeiss). 

d    o          o 

s  s       s 

Irr 

!u  tyro-re  fracto- 
meter  (Zeiss). 

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REICHEBT-ME76SL    VALUES   OP    OILS,    FATS,    AND    WAXES. 


13? 


TABLE  SHOWING  REICHERT-MEISSL  VALUES  FOR  CERTAIN 
OILS,  FATS,  AND  WAXES. 


(c.c.  N/10  alkali  required  by  5  grams.) 


Almond  oil 
Apricot  kernel  oil 
Arachis  oil 
Beeswax  . 
Cacao  butter     . 
Castor  oil 
Cocoa-nut  oil   . 
Cod-liver  oil     . 
Cotton-seed  oil 
Croton  oil 
Lard 


0-5 
O'O 

0-0-1-6 
0-34-0-54 
0-2-0-8 
11 

7-0-7-8 
0-4-0-8 
0-7-0-9 
12-13-5 
0-6-0-77 


Linseed  oil 
Maize  oil 
Neat's  foot  oil 
Niger  seed  oil  . 
Nutmeg  butter 
Olive  oil 
Palm  oil 
Rape  oil  . 
Sesame  oil 
Sperm  oil 
Wheat  oil 


o-o 

.    4-4-5 
0-9-1-2 

Q-ll-0'63 

.    1-4-2 
0  6 

0-8-1-9 
0-0-0-8 

.    1-2 
0-6 

.    2-3 


ESSENTIAL  OILS. 

The  following  results  were  obtained  in  the  laboratory  of  Schimmel  & 
Co.,  and  are  considered  to  have  been  established  with  certainty.* 


Sp.  gr. 
15°  C.  /15*. 

Rotation  observed  directly  in  100 
mm.  tube  with  sodium  light 
@  20°  C. 

Oil  of  bergamot        . 
,,     lemon    . 
,,      orange  (sweet) 
„       (bitter) 

0-883--886 
0-858--861 
0-848--852 
» 

+   9°  to  +  15°  not  above  20° 
+  59°  to  +  67°  not  below  59° 
+  96°  to  +  98°  not  below  96° 
+  92°  to  +  98°  not  below  92° 
(limonene) 

OILS  AND  FATS. 
TABLE  OF  SAPONIFICATION  VALUES. 

5  Grams  Saponified. 
1  c.c.  N/2  acid  =  0-02805  gram  KOH  (log.  2 -44793). 


No.  of  c.c.  N/2 
acid  used. 

Saponiflcation 
value. 

No.  of  c.c.  N/2 
acid  used. 

Saponification 
value. 

+  0-1  c.c.  =  +0-56 

+  01  c.c.  =  +0-56 

80-0 

168-30 

31-0 

173-91 

•2 

169-42 

•2 

175-03 

•4 

170-54 

•4 

176-15 

•6 

171-67 

•6 

177-28 

•8 

172-79 

•8 

178-40 

*  From  Landolt's  Optical  Rotating  Power  of  Organic  Substances. 


138 


OILS   AND    FATS. 


OILS  AND  FATS. 
TABLE  OF  SAPONIFICATION  VALUES— continued. 

5  Grams  Saponified. 
1  c.c.  N/2  acid  =  0-02805  gram  KOH  (log.  2-44793). 


No.  of  c.c.  N/2 
acid  used. 

Saponiflcation 
value. 

No.  of  c.c.  N/2 
acid  used. 

Saponiflcation 
value. 

+  0'1  c.c.  =  -hO'56 

+  0-1  c.c.  =  +0'56 

32-0 

179-52 

37-8 

212-06 

•2 

180-64 

38-0 

21318 

•4 

181-76 

•2 

214-30 

•6 

182-89 

•4 

215-42 

•8 

184-01 

•6 

216  55 

33-0 

18513 

•8 

217-67 

•2 

186-25 

39-0 

218-79       ' 

•4 

187-37 

•2 

219-91 

•6 

188-50 

•4 

221-03 

•8 

189-62 

•6 

222-16 

34-0 

190-74 

•8 

223'28 

•2 

191-86 

40-0 

224-40 

•4 

192-98 

•2 

225-52 

•6 

194-11 

•4 

226-64 

•8 

195-23 

•6 

227-77 

35-0 

196-35 

•8 

228-89 

•2 

197-47 

41-0 

230-01 

•4 

198-59 





•6 

199-72 

i-o 

5-61 

•8 

200-84 

2-0 

11-22 

36-0 

201-96 

3-0 

16-83 

•2 

203-08 

4-0 

22-44 

•4 

204-20 

5-0 

28-05 

•6 

205-33 

6-0 

33-66 

•8 

206-45 

7-0 

39-27 

37-0 

207-57 

8-0 

44-88 

•2 

208-69 

9-0 

50-49 

•4 

209-81 

10-0 

56-10 

•6 

210-94 





The  Saponification  Equivalent  of  a  fat  is  the  number  of  grams  that 
would  be  saponified  by  1  litre  of  a  normal  solution  of  any  alkali.  It 
is  the  quotient  obtained  by  dividing  56108  by  the  saponification 
value. 


BUTTER   ANALYSIS. 


139 


SOLUBLE  on  VOLATILE  ACIDS  IN  BUTTER  FAT. 
5  Grams  Butter  Fat  being  taken. 


c.c. 

*  Alkali. 

%  Soluble 
or  Volatile 
Acids.* 

c.c. 

**%* 

V.  Soluble 
or  Volatile 
Acids. 

c.c. 

NAlkalI. 

•/.  Soluble 
or  Volatile 
Acids. 

1-0 

0-18 

13-5 

2-38 

26-0 

4-58 

1-5 

0-26 

14'0 

2-46 

26'5 

4-66 

2'0 

0-35 

14-5 

2-55 

27-0 

4'75 

2-5 

0'44 

15-0 

2-64 

27'5 

4-84 

3'0 

0-53 

15'5 

2-73 

28-0 

4-93 

3  '5 

0'62 

16-0 

2-82 

28-5 

5-02 

4-0 

0-70 

16-5 

2-90 

29-0 

5-10 

4-5 

079 

17-0 

2-99 

29-5 

5-19 

5-0 

0-88 

17-5 

3f08 

30-0 

5-28 

5-5 

0-97 

18-0 

3-17 

30-5 

5-37 

6'0 

1-06 

18-5 

3-26 

31-0 

5-46 

6-5 

I'll 

19-0 

3-34 

31-5 

5-54 

7-0 

1-23 

19-5 

3-43 

32-0 

.5-63 

7'5 

1-32 

20-0 

3-52 

32-5 

572 

8'0 

1-41 

20-5 

3-61 

33-0 

5'81 

8-5 

1-50 

21-0 

370 

33-5 

5-90 

9-0 

1-58 

21-5 

378 

34-0 

5'98 

9-5 

1-67 

22-0 

3'87 

34-5 

6-07 

10-0 

176 

22-5 

3'96 

35-0 

6-16 

10-5 

1-85 

23-0 

4-05 





11-0 

1-94 

23-5 

4-14 

O'l 

0-02 

11-5 

2-02 

24-0 

4-22 

0-2 

0-04 

12-0 

2*11 

24-5 

4-31 

0-3 

0'05 

12-5 

2-20 

25-0 

4-40 

0-4 

0'07 

13-0 

2-29 

25-5 

4'49 





! 

*  Calculated  as  Butyric  Acid,  C4lI802=88. 


140 


DETERMINATION    OF   BUTTER-PAT    IN    MARGARINE. 


TABLE  FOB  THE  DETERMINATION  OF  BUTTER- FAT  IN 
MARGARINE.* 


Reichert-Wollny 
Number  of  the  Mixture. 
4-0       . 
4'3      . 
4'6      . 
4-9      . 
5-2      . 
5-5      . 
5-9      . 


6-5 
6'8 
7-1 


Percentage  of  Butter-Fat 
present  in  the  Mixture. 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 


Note. — Since  the  above  was  issued  margarine  manufacturers  have 
largely  introduced  cocoa-nut  oil  into  their  product,  40  per  cent,  or  more 
being  sometimes  used.  The  volatile  acids  thus  derived  may  cause  an 
unduly  hicrh  percentage  of  butter-fat  to  be  recorded  (see  The  Analyst, 
1904,  p.  208). 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  VARIATIONS  IN  REICHERT-WOLLNY 
NUMBER,  ETC.,  OF  BUTTER  AND  MARGARINE,  t 


Butter. 

Margarine. 

Mean. 

Variations. 

Reichert-Wollny  number 

28-4c.c. 

21-2-35c.c. 

O'O-O'S  c.c. 

Insoluble  fatty  acids 

8775% 

85-6-89-6% 

95-96% 

Soluble  fatty  acids 

5'58% 

4-6-7-0% 

trace 

Butyro   -    refractometer 

(Zeiss)  at  35°  C. 

46-0 

43-8-49 

52-56 

Iodine  absorption  . 
Sp.  gr.  100°  F./1000       . 

37-4% 
0-9117 

31-6-42-0% 
0-9105-  -9122 

50-60% 
0-901--903 

Potash  absorption  . 

22-58% 

22-01-22-98% 

19-1-19-6% 

THE  INTERDEPENDENCE  OF  THE  PHYSICAL  AND  CHEMICAL 
CRITERIA  IN  THE  ANALYSIS  OF  BUTTER-FAT. 

During  1901-2  over  four  hundred  samples  of  butter  were  taken 
from  farms  or  creameries  in  various  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom, 
including  the  Orkneys,  Shetlands  and  Hebrides,  the  samples  being 
specially  selected  with  the  view  of  ascertaining  by  analysis  the 
extent  to  which  the  chemical  nature  of  butter-fat  is  dependent  on 
the  climatic  influences  to  which  the  cows  are  exposed,  on  the 
nature  and  amount  of  the  food  supplied,  and  on  the  breed,  period 

*  From  the  Report  of  the  official  method  for  determining  the  percentage  of 
butter-fat  in  margarine  (see  The  Analyst,  1900,  p.  310). 

t  By  H.  Droop  Richmond,  see  Appendix  XXI.  to  the  Final  Report  of  the  Depart- 
mental Committee  on  Butter  Regulations,  1904. 


ANALYSIS    OF   BUTTER    FAT. 


141 


of  lactation,  and  idiosyncrasy  of  the  individual  cow.  Of  the 
samples  collected,  357  were  fully  analysed  in  the  Government 
Laboratory,  and  the  results,  which  are  fully  recorded  in  supple- 
ments to  the  report  already  referred  to,  form  the  subject  of  a  paper 
with  the  above  title*  by  Dr  T.  E.  Thorpe,  C.B.,  F.R.S.  The 
results  are  summarized  in  the  subjoined  table  : — 


357  samples  exan.ined. 

Butter-fat. 

39  samples 
(10-9%) 

290  samples 
(81-2%). 

28  samples 
(7-9%). 

Reichert     -     Wolluy 

number 

22-5-24-5 

25-5-30-5 

31-3-32-6 

Sp.gr.  100°  F./100°F. 

0-9101-  -9108 

0-9110-  '9123 

0-9125-  -9130 

Saponification  equiva- 

lent 

255-4-251-3 

251-1-242-4 

241-5-241-2 

(Koettstorfer  number) 

219-3-222-8 

223-0-231-0 

231-9-232-2 

Butyro  -  refractometei 

(Zeiss)  at  45°  C.     . 

42-41-5 

41-3-39-9 

39-7-39-4 

Soluble  acids  t% 

4-3-47 

4-8-5-7 

5-8-6-0 

Insoluble  acids  % 

90-1-89-4 

89-3-87-9 

87-9-877 

Dr  Thorpe  makes  the  following  comments  : — 

"  It  will  be  seen  that,  in  a  general  sense,  the  relative  density  of 
butter-fat  increases  as  the  Reichert- Wollny  number  is  augmented. J 
This  would,  of  course,  follow  from  the  well-known  fact  that  the 
glycerides  of  low  molecular  weight  have  a  greater  density  than  the 
glycerides  of  the  higher  fatty  acids  which  occur  in  butter."  .  .  . 
"  Speaking  broadly,  the  variations  of  the  saponification  numbers 
are  in  inverse  relation  to  those  of  the  Reichert-Wollny  values  and 
the  relative  densities.J  .  .  .  The  Zeiss  numbers  generally  decrease 
in  magnitude  as  the  Reichert-Wollny  values  increase,  but  the  rate 
of  diminution  is  not  regular."  J 

BOARD  or  AGRICULTURE  RULES. 
Sale  of  Butter  Regulations,  1902. 

Where  the  proportion  of  water  in  a  sample  of  butter  exceeds  16 
per  cent.,  it  shall  be  presumed  for  the  purposes  of  the  Sale  of  Food 
and  Drugs  Acts,  1875  to  1899,  until  the  contrary  is  proved,  that 
the  butter  is  not  genuine  by  reason  of  the  excessive  amount  of 
water  therein. 

This  regulation  extends  to  Great  Britain,  and  came  into  operation 
on  15th  May  1902. 

*  Journ.  Chem.  Soc. ,  1904,  pp.  248-256. 
t  Calculated  as  butyric  acid. 

t  These  relations  are  deduced  from  curves  plotted  from  the  averages  of  the 
various  analytical  results. 


142       CALCULATION    OF   THE   RESULTS   OP    MILK   ANALYSES. 

The  Departmental  Committee  on  butter  regulations,  in  their 
Final  Report,  dated  1st  December  1903,  recommend  : — 

(1)  That  the    figure    24,  arrived    at   by  the   Reichert-Wollny 
method,  should  be  the  limit  below  which  a  presumption  should  be 
raised  that  butter  is  not  genuine. 

(2)  That  the  use  of  10  per  cent,  of  sesame  oil  in  the  manufacture 
of  margarine  be  made  compulsory. 

(3)  That  steps  should  be  taken  to  obtain  international  co-operation. 

Two  members  of  the  Committee,  however,  favoured  the  Reichert- 
Wollny  number  of  23  instead  of  24.  A  third  member,  who  did 
not  sign  the  Report  of  the  majority,  stated  in  a  separate  report 
that  he  considered  it  would  be  "  highly  dangerous "  to  fix  any 
limit  at  present. 

CALCULATION  OF  THE  RESULTS  OF  MILK  ANALYSES. 

According  to  the  "Sale  of  Milk  Regulations,  1901 "  (see  p.  143), 
milk  is  to  be  presumed  not  to  be  genuine  if  the  non-fatty  solids 
fall  below  8 '5  per  cent.,  or  the  milk-fat  below  3  per  cent. 

The  calculation  of  the  amount  of  added  water  in  the  case  of 
samples  whose  non-fatty  solids  fall  below  the  above  limit  is  made 
as  follows  : — 

Since  8'5  parts  of  non-fatty  solids  correspond  to  100  parts  of 
genuine  (i.e.,  presumably  genuine)  milk,  S  parts  of  non-fatty 

100 

solids  correspond  to  — —  x  S  of  genuine  milk  ;  and  100  parts  of 
8*5 

the  watered  sample  will  contain 

100  -  !^°_S  =  122  (8-5  -  S)  of  added  water. 
8'5       8'5 

Since  log.  129.  =  1 -Q7058,  we  have 
8'5 

log.  of  percentage  of  added  water  =  1-07058  + 

log.   (8'5 -per  cent,   of  non-fatty 

solids  found). 
We  will  now  consider  two  examples. 

Example  I.  Example  II. 

Non-fatty  solids         .         .     7 '60  per  cent.  7  "89 

Fat 2-80       „  2-25 

Example  I.  8'50- 7'60=0'90. 

T07058 
log.  0-9        1-95424 

1-02482 =log.  10'6  .-.   at  least  10  per  cent,   of  added 

water. 
A    mixture    of    90   parts  of  genuine  milk  and    10  parts   of 

QO 

added  water  should  contain  —  x3  =  2'7  per  cent,  at  least  of  fat. 

The  sample  contains  2-8  per  cent.,  and  hence  contains  proportion- 
ately a  little  more  fat  than  that  given  in  the  Regulation. 


CALCULATION    OF   THE   RESULTS    OF    MILK   ANALYSES.        143 

Example  II.  8'50-7'89  =  0-61. 

1-07058 
log.  0-61=   1-78533 

0'85591=log.  7'2  /.  at  least  7  per  cent  of  added  water. 
A    mixture    of    93    parts    of    genuine    milk  and    7    parts   of 
added   water  should   contain  0'93x3  =  2'79  per  cent,  at  least  of 
fat.     The  sample  contains  only  2 '25  per  cent.,  and  is,  therefore, 
100  (2-79-2-25)  =  19  pep  ^^  deficient  in  miik.fat  as  wen 
2'79 

Note. — The  results  given  above  can  be  expressed  in  a  different 
way.  Thus,  in  Ex.  I.  we  have  90  parts  of  genuine  milk  mixed 
with  10  parts  of  water  ;  or  to  100  parts  of  milk  ll'l  parts  of 
water  have  been  added — hence,  on  this  view,  the  sample  has  been 
diluted  with  ll'l  per  cent,  of  added  water.  Similarly,  a  milk 
that  consisted  of  equal  parts  of  milk  and  water  would  be  said  to 
be  diluted  with  100  per  cent,  of  added  water.  Seeing,  however, 
that  the  real  issue  at  stake  is  the  composition  of  the  article 
supplied  to  the  purchaser,  the  statement  that  a  sample  of  "  milk  " 
contains,  e.g.,  90  per  cent,  of  genuine  milk  and  10  per  cent,  of 
added  water  is  considered  decidedly  preferable. 

BOARD  OP  AGRICULTURE  RULES. 

Sale  of  Milk  Regulations,  1901. 

Milk 

1.  Where  a  sample  of  milk  (not  being  milk  sold  as  skimmed,  or 
separated,  or  condensed,  milk)  contains  less  than  3  per  cent,  of 
milk -fat,  it  shall  be  presumed  for  the  purposes  of  the  Sale  of  Food 
and  Drugs  Acts,  1875  to  1899,  until  the  contrary  is  proved,  that 
the  milk  is  not  genuine,  by  reason  of  the  abstraction  therefrom  of 
milk-fat,  or  the  addition  thereto  of  water. 

2.  Where  a  sample  of  milk  (not  being  milk  sold  as  skimmed,  or 
separated,  or  condensed,  milk)  contains  less  than  8'5  per  cent,  of 
milk-solids  other  than    milk-fat,  it  shall  be   presumed   for  the 
purposes  of  the  Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs  Acts,  1875  to  1899,  until 
the  contrary  is  proved,  that  the  milk  is  not  genuine,  by  reason  of 
the  abstraction  therefrom  of  milk-solids  other  than   milk-fat,  or 
the  addition  thereto  of  water. 

Skimmed  or  Separated  Milk. 

3.  Where  a  sample  of  skimmed  or  separated   milk  (not  being 
condensed  milk)  contains  less  than  9  per  cent,  of  milk-solids,  it 
shall  be  presumed  for  the  purposes  of  the  Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs 
Acts,  1875  to  1899,  until  the  contrary  is  proved,  that  the  milk  is 
not  genuine,  by  reason  of  the  abstraction  therefrom  of  milk-solids 
other  than  milk-fat,  or  the  addition  thereto  of  water. 

The  above  regulations  extend  to  Great  Britain,  and  came  into 
operation  on  1st  September  1901. 


144 


MILK   ANALYSIS. 


TABLE  GIVING  THE  PERCENTAGE  DEFICIENCY  OF  NON-FATTY  SOLIDS 
(N.F.S.)  IN  MILK  IN  WHICH  THESE  ARE  BELOW  THE  LEGAL 
MINIMUM  OF  8 '5  PER  CENT. 


%  Non-fatty 
Solids. 

%  Deficiency 
in  N.F.S. 

%  Non-fatty 
Solids. 

%  Deficiency 
in  N.F.S. 

%  Non-  fatty 
Solids. 

%  Deficiency 
iu  N.F.S. 

4-0 

52-94 

5-5 

35-29 

7-0 

17-65 

•1 

51-76 

•6 

34-12 

•1 

16-47 

•2 

50-59 

7 

32-94 

•2 

15-29 

•3 

49-41 

•8 

3176 

•3 

14-12 

•4 

48-24 

•9 

30-59 

•4 

12-94 

•5 

47'06 

6-0 

29  41 

•5 

11-76 

•6 

45-88 

•1 

28-24 

•6 

10-59 

•7 

4471 

•2 

27-06 

7 

9-41 

•8 

43-53 

•3 

25-? 

18 

•8 

8-24 

•9 

42  35 

•4 

24-71 

•9 

7-06 

5-0 

41-18 

•5 

23-53 

8-0 

5-88 

•1 

40-00 

•6 

22-35 

•1 

4-71 

'2 

39-82 

7 

21-18 

•2 

3-53 

•3 

37-65 

•8 

20-00 

•3 

2-35 

•4 

36-47 

•9 

18-82 

•4 

1-18 

•01       '02 

•03       "04 

•05 

•06        -07 

08        -09 

Subtract 

•12      -23 

•35      -47 

•59 

71        '82 

•94      1-06 

Ex.—k  sample  of  "milk"  containing  7'26%  of  non-fatty  solids  would 
thus  show  a  deficiency  of  15-29  -  *71  =  14-58%. 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  DEFICIENCY  IN  FAT  IN  CREAMED  MILK. 


%  Milk-fat. 

%  Deficiency 
in  Fat. 

%  Milk-fat. 

%  Deficiency 
in  Fat. 

%  Milk-fat. 

%  Deficiency 
in  Fat. 

O'l 

96 

67 

1-1 

63-33 

2-1 

30-00 

•2 

93-33 

•2 

60-00 

•2 

26-67 

•3 

90 

00 

•3 

56-67 

•3 

23  33 

•4 

86 

67 

•4 

53-33 

•4 

20-00 

•5 

83 

33 

•5 

50-00 

•5 

16  67 

•6 

80-00 

•6 

46-67 

•6 

13-33 

•7 

76 

67 

7 

43-33 

•7 

10-00 

•8 

73 

33 

•8 

40-00 

•8 

6  67 

•9 

70 

00 

•9 

36-67 

•9 

3-33 

1-0 

66 

67 

2'0 

33-33 

... 

•01 

•02 

•03      -04 

•05        '06        -07 

•08 

•09 

Subtract 

0-33 

0'67 

1-00    1'33 

1-67   |  2-00      2-33 

2-67 

3-00 

SPECIFIC    GRAVITY    OF   MILK. 


145 


& 


O> 
<M 


t-      I    rH 

£J      i 

s   s 


U3 
(N 


s  a 


X      <* 


t^ 
<N 


Cfl 

CN 


T*« 

CM 


CN 
CN 


-§ 


•ScS§ 


isa 


» 

•r-l     gj  CM  <4_l 

.-MOO 


0    a) 


146  PRESERVATIVES    IN    MILK    AND    CREAM. 


PRESERVATIVES  IN  MILK  AND  CREAM. 

The  Local  Government  Board  have  recently  issued  a  Draft  of 
"The  Public  Health  (Milk  and  Cream)  Regulations,  1912,"  by  which 
the  addition  of  any  preservative  substance  to  milk  (including 
separated,  skimmed,  condensed,  and  dried  milk),  or  to  cream  con- 
taining less  than  40  per  cent,  by  weight  of  milk  fat,  is  prohibited. 
The  addition  of  any  thickening  substance*  to  cream,  whether  con- 
taining preservative  or  not,  is  also  prohibited.  These  regulations 
will  come  into  operation  on  June  1,  1912. 

Cream  containing  40  per  cent,  or  more  by  weight  of  milk  fat  may 
contain  no  preservative  substance  other  than 

(i)  Boric  acid,  borax,  or  a  mixture  of  these  preservative  substances, 
— the  article  to  be  described,  in  such  cases,  as  Preserved  Cream,  and 
the  amount  of  preservative,  calculated  as  boric  acid  (H3B03),  to  be 
specified  on  the  label  thus  :  "  Preserved  Cream  containing  Boric  Acid 
not  exceeding  —  per  cent."  t 

(ii)  Hydrogen  peroxide,  in  amount  not  exceeding  O'l  per  cent,  by 
weight — the  cream  being  labelled  "  Preserved  Cream  Peroxidised." 

These  latter  Regulations  will  not  come  into  operation  till  January 
1,  1913. 


QUININE. 


Hydrochloride  of  Quinine, 

C20H24N202,  HC1,  2H20. 

=  396-712 

Percentage  composition 


8173 

HC1   .        .          .         .'         9-19 
H20  ....          9-08 


100-00 


Sulphate  of  Quinine, 


, 

2[(C20H24N202)2.H2S04],  15H20. 
=  1763-26 

Percentage  composition. 


73-55 

H2S04        .         .         .        11-12 
H20  ....        15-33 


To  convert  j  Multiplier, 

into   CaoH^NaOa,  HC1,  2H20  1  '2236 


2[(C20H24N202)2.H2S04],  15H20       T360 


100-00 


Log.  to  be  added. 
0-087  6462 
0-133  4273 


Tincture  of  Quinine,  B.P.  1898,  contains  2  grams  of  hydrochloride 
of  quinine  in  100  c.c. 

*  i.e.  sucrate  of  lime,  gelatin,  starch  paste,  etc.;  but  neither  cane  nor  beet  sugar 
shall  be  regarded  as  a  preservative  or  as  a  thickening  substance, 
f  No  mention  is  made  of  the  maximum  amount  of  boric  acid  that  will  be  allowed, 


MIXTURES   OF    COFFEE    AND    CHICOEY.  147 


E.  W.  T.  JONES'S  METHOD  FOR  THE  ESTIMATION  OF  CHICORY  IN 
MIXTURES  OF  COFFEE  AND  CHICORY. 

The  sample  is  dried  in  the  water-oven,  and  5  grams  are  weighed 
into  a  large  porcelain  dish.  About  200  c.c.  of  water  are  added,  and 
boiled  for  15  minutes-  After  allowing  a  minute  or  two  for  settling, 
the  liquid  is  strained  through  a  piece  of  copper  gauze  placed  in  a 
funnel  into  a  250-c.c.  measuring  flask,  care  being  taken  to  disturb 
the  grounds  as  little  as  possible.  The  latter  are  now  treated  with 
about  50  c.c.  of  water,  boiled  for  5  minutes,  and  the  liquid  strained 
off  as  before.  The  flask  is  then  cooled,  made  up  to  the  mark,  well 
shaken  and  filtered,  the  liquid  being  poured  on  a  dry  filter  ;  50  c.c. 
of  the  filtrate  (  =  1  gram  of  the  coffee  mixture)  are  then  pipetted  into 
a  weighed,  flat-bottomed  glass  dish,  evaporated  to  dryness  over  a 
steam-bath,  and  finally  dried  in  the  water-oveu.  The  results  are 
returned  to  the  nearest  percentage  of  chicory  (see  Table  on  p.  148). 

Treated  as  above,  chicory  gives  a  mean  percentage  extract  of  70  ; 
while  coffee  gives  a  remarkably  constant  percentage  extract  of  24. 

To  determine  the  percentage  of  chicory  from  the  weight  of  extract 
obtained,  we  proceed  as  follows  :  — 

Let  x  =  percentage  of  chicory. 
/.  100  -jc=  „          coffee. 

and  let  E=  ,,          extract  found. 

.'.  0  7  •>••+  '24(100  -«)  =  E. 
07a;  +  24--24a:=E. 

•46x  =  E-24. 
E-24. 


Putting  x  =  1,  we  find  E  =  24'46,  and  the  table  on  page  148  is  in  this 
way  easily  calculated. 

Note.—  By  the  above  method  E.  W.  T.  Jones  obtained  the  excellent 
results  recorded  in  The  Analyst,  1882,  7,  76,  in  the  case  of  the 
Birkenhead  "  Coffee  "  samples. 


LEAD  IN  TARTARIC  AND  CITRIC  ACIDS  AND  IN  CREAM 
OF  TARTAR. 

Dr  MacFadden,  in  a  Eeport  to  the  Local  Government  Board,* 
recommends  the  adoption  of  a  limit  of  (V002  per  cent,  (approxi- 
mately Mi  grain  per  Ib.)  of  lead  as  impurity  in  tartaric  acid,  citric 
acid,  and  cream  of  tartar. 

*  Report  (No.  2)  on  Lead  and  Arsenic  in  Tartaric  Acid,  Citric  Acid  and  Cream  of 
Tartar,  1907. 


148 


COFFEE  AND  CHICORY  TABLE. 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  PERCENTAGE  OF  CHICORY  WITH  COFFEE  FROM 
THE  PERCENTAGE  OF  AQUEOUS  EXTRACT. 


Extract  per 
cent. 

Chicory  per 
cent. 

Extract  per 
cent. 

Chicory  per 
cent. 

Extract  per 
cent. 

Chicory  per 
cent. 

24'46 

1 

40-10 

35 

55-28 

68 

•92 

2 

•56 

36 

•74 

69 

25-38 

3 

41-02 

37 

56-20 

70 

•84 

4 

•48 

38 

•66 

71 

26-30 

5 

•94 

39 

57-12 

72 

•76 

6 

42-40 

40 

•58 

73 

27-22 

7 

•86 

41 

58-04 

74 

•68 

8 

43-32 

42 

•50 

75 

28-14 

9 

•78 

43 

•96 

76 

•60 

10 

44-24 

44 

59-42 

77 

29-06 

11 

•70 

45 

•88 

78 

•52 

12 

45-16 

46 

60-34 

79 

•98 

13 

•62 

47 

•80 

80 

30-44 

14 

46-08 

48 

61-26 

81 

•90 

15 

•54 

49 

•72 

82 

31-36 

16 

47-00 

50 

62-18 

83 

•82 

17 

•46 

51 

•64 

84 

32-28 

18 

•92 

52 

63-10 

85 

•74 

19 

48-38 

53 

•56 

86 

33-20 

20 

•84 

54 

64-02 

87 

•66 

21 

49-30 

55 

•48      , 

88 

34-12 

22 

•76 

56 

•94 

89 

•58 

23 

50-22 

57 

65-40 

90 

35-04 

24 

•68 

58 

•86 

91 

•50 

25 

51-14 

59 

66-32 

92 

•96 

26 

•60 

60 

•78 

93 

36-42 

27 

52-06 

61 

67-24 

94 

•88 

28 

•52 

62 

•70 

95 

37-34 

29 

•98 

63 

68-16 

96 

•80 

30 

53-44 

64 

•62 

97 

38-26 

31 

•90 

65 

69-08 

98 

•72 

32 

54-36 

66 

•54 

99 

89-18 

33 

•82 

67 

70-00 

100 

•64 

34 

FOOD    PRESERVATIVES.  149 

FOOD  PRESERVATIVES. 

The  Departmental  Committee  on  Food  Preservatives  appointed 
in  1899  in  their  Report,*  issued  in  1901,  make  the  following 
recommendations  : — 

(a)  That  the  use  of  formaldehyde  or  formalin,  or  preparations 
thereof,  in  food  or  drinks,  be  absolutely  prohibited,  and 
that  salicylic  acid  be  not  used  in  a  greater  proportion  than 
1  grain  per  pint  in  liquid  food  and  1  grain  per  pound  in 
solid  food.  Its  presence  in  all  cases  to  be  declared. 

(6)  That  the  use  of  any  preservative  or  colouring  matter  what- 
ever in  milk  offered  for  sale  in  the  United  Kingdom  be  con- 
stituted an  offence  under  the  Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs  Acts.t 

(c)  That  the  only  preservative  which  it  shall  be  lawful  to  use  in 

cream  be  boric  acid,  or  mixtures  of  boric  acid  and  borax, 
and  in  amount  not  exceeding  0'25  per  cent,  expressed  as 
boric  acid.  The  amount  of  such  preservative  to  be  notified 
by  a  label  upon  the  vessel. 

(d)  That  the   only  preservative  permitted  to  be  used  in  butter 

and  margarine  be  boric  acid,  or  mixtures  of  boric  acid  and 
borax,  to  be  used  in  proportions  not  exceeding  0'5  per  cent, 
expressed  as  boric  acid. 

(e)  That  in  the  case  of  all  dietetic  preparations  intended  for  the 

use  of  invalids  or  infants,  chemical  preservatives  of  all 
kinds  be  prohibited. 

(/)  That  the  use  of  copper  salts  in  the  so-called  greening  ol  pre- 
served foods  be  prohibited. 

(</)  That  means  be  provided  either  by  the  establishment  of  a 
separate  court  of  reference,  or  by  the  imposition  of  more 
direct  obligation  on  the  Local  Government  Board,  to  exercise 
supervision  over  the  use  of  preservatives  and  colouring 
matters  in  foods,  and  to  prepare  schedules  of  such  as  may 
be  considered  inimical  to  the  public  health. 

With  regard  to  the  recommendation  marked  (/),  Dr  Tunniclitfe, 
a  member  of  the  Committee,  points  out  the  value  of  appearance  in 
rendering  foods  appetising,  and  recommends  that  not  more  than 
the  equivalent  of  half  a  grain  of  metallic  copper  per  pound  should 
be  allowed  to  be  added,  the  actual  amount  used  being  declared. 

ARSENIC  IN  FOOD. 

In  the  Final  Report  of  the  Royal  Commission  appointed  to  in- 
quire into  Arsenical  Poisoning,  issued  in  November  1903,  the 
Commissioners  state  (Part  VIII.,  p.  50),  that  "In  our  view  it 
would  be  entirely  proper  that  penalties  should  be  imposed  under 
the  Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs  Acts  upon  any  vendor  of  beer  or  any 
other  liquid  food,  or  of  any  liquid  entering  into  the  composition 

*  Report  of  Departmental  Committee  on  Preservatives  and  Colouring  Matters  in 
Food,  1901,  pp.  xxx  and  xxxi. 

t  See  also  Circular  issued  by  the  Local  Government  Board,  July  11.  1906  (reprinted 
in  The  Analyst,  1906,  31,  278). 


150         DATA  IN  HBAT  AND  THERMOCHEMISTRY. 

of  food,  if  that  liquid  is  shown  by  an  adequate  test  to  contain  TJ0th 
of  a  grain  or  more  of  arsenic  in  the  gallon ;  and,  with  regard  to 
solid  food — no  matter  whether  it  is  habitually  consumed  in  large 
or  in  small  quantities,  or  whether  it  is  taken  by  itself  (like  golden 
syrup)  or  mixed  with  water  or  other  substances  (like  chicory  or 
*  carnos ') — if  the  substance  is  shown  by  an  adequate  test  to  contain 
Ycnjth  grain  of  arsenic  or  more  in  the  pound." 

Note. — In  the  above  "  arsenic ''  is  taken  to  mean  arsenious  oxide 
(As406). 

DATA  IN  HEAT  AND  THERMO-CHEMISTRY. 

The  C.G.S.  unit  of  heat  is  the  calorie,  which  is  the  quantity  of 
heat  required  to  raise  1  gram  of  water  through  1°  C. 

A  large  or  major  calorie  is  the  quantity  of  heat  required  to  raise 
1  kilogram  of  water  through  1°  C. 

A  British  Thermal  Unit  (B.T.U.)  is  the  quantity  of  heat  required 
to  raise  1  Ib.  of  water  through  1°  Fah. 

1  (large)  calorie  =  3'968  B.T.U.  (log.  0^59857). 
1  B.T.U.  =  0'252  (large)  calories  (log.  1-40143). 
The  values  of  the  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat,  that  is,  the 
number  of  units  of  mechanical  work  equivalent  to  one  unit  of  heat, 
or  Joule's  equivalent  (designated  by  the  letter  J),  are  usually  taken 
to  be  as  follows : — 

777  foot-pounds  are  equivalent  to  1  B.T.U.  (Ib.  deg.  Fah.). 
1399  „  „  „         lib.  deg.  0. 

426"3  kilogramrnetres  „  „         1  kilogram-deg.  C.  or  kilo- 

calorie. 
4-180  joules*  „  „         1  gram-deg.  C.  or  calorie. 

The  water  for  the  heat  units  is  supposed  to  be  taken  at  20°  C. 
(68°  F.)and  the  degree  of  temperature  is  supposed  to  be  measured 
by  the  hydrogen  thermometer. 

Heat  evolved  in  calories  (water-gram-degrees)  on  burning  1 
gram  of: — 

Hydrogen  to  water  at  0°  C 34000 

Carbon  to  carbon  dioxide         .....       8080 
„  „       monoxide    .  ...       2400 

Coal 8300-6400 

Anthracite 8000 

Coke 7100-6860 

Wood  (with  20  per  cent,  water)  .         .         .       2750 

„      (air-dried) 2900 

„      (dried  at  120°  C.) 3600 

Peat  (air-dried) 3000-3500 

Lignite 3500-5000 

The  latent  heat  of  water  is  80  (gram-deg.  C.)  or  144  in  B.T.U. 
The  latent  heat  of  steam  is  537  (gram-deg.  C.)  or  967  in  B.T.U. 

*  The  joule  is  the  practical  unit  of  work  in  the  C.G.S.  system.  It  equals  10 
million(or  10")  absolute  units  of  work  (ergs). 


DETERMINATION  OF  THE  CALORIFIC  POWER  OF  FUEL.     151 

THE  DETERMINATION  OF  THE  CALORIFIC  POWER  OF 
FUEL  BY  THOMPSON'S  CALORIMETER. 

Although  recent  comparative  experiments  with  different  types  of 
calorimeter*  have  conclusively  proved  the  superiority  of  Mahler's 
Bomb  Calorimeter  above  all  other  forms,  still,  owing  to  the  expense 
of  the  instrument,  it  seems  unlikely  to  come  into  general  use  at 
present.  And  since  Thompson's  Calorimeter  is  so  largely  used, 
the  following  details  of  manipulation  are  given,  so  that  the  best 
results  the  instrument  is  capable  of  giving  may  be  obtained  .t 

In  the  first  place  it  should  be  noted  that  for  coals  of  an 
anthracitic  character,  yielding  more  than  87  per  cent,  of  coke,  or 
for  coke  itself,  Thompson's  Calorimeter  is  not  suited  as  an 
indicator  of  their  comparative  calorific  power,  for  the  simple 
reason  that  some  of  the  carbon  is  so  graphitic  in  its  nature  that 
it  will  not  burn  perfectly  when  mixed  with  nitrate  and  chlorate  of 
potash ;  but  with  bituminous  and  semi-bituminous  coals  the 
appaiatus  yields  very  satisfactory  results. 

Preparation  of  the  sample  of  coal. — Sample  the  coal  until  an 
average  portion  passes  through  an  8-mesh  sieve.  Take  about  20 
grams  of  this  and  run  through  a  68-mesh  sieve,  taking  care  that 
the  whole  sample  selected  is  thus  treated.  Then  dry  at  100°  C., 
and  use  the  dried  coal  for  making  the  determination. 

Preparation  of  the  oxidizing  mixture. — Potassium  nitrate  and 
chlorate  are  used  in  the  proportion  of  1  part  of  nitrate  to  3  of 
chlorate.  These  are  first  thoroughly  dried,  ground  separately,  and 
sifted  through  a  30-mesh  sieve — a  finer  powder  being  prejudicial. 
The  powders  are  then  mixed  in  the  proportions  stated,  and  kept 
in  a  well-stoppered  bottle. 

Preparation  of  the  wick. — Oxford  cotton  is  soaked  in  a  moderately 
strong  solution  of  potassium  nitrate,  and  dried.  When  dry,  it 
should  burn  a  little  too  quickly.  It  should  then  be  rubbed 
between  two  pieces  of  cloth  until  it  burns  just  freely  enough. 
Four  cotton  strands  are  twisted  together,  cut  into  f -inch  lengths, 
thoroughly  dried,  and  put  into  a  bottle. 

The  process. — Before  weighing  out  the  coal,  etc.,  read  the 
temperature  of  the  room,  and  regulate  the  temperature  of  the 
water  used  by  the  following  table. 

Temperature  of  room.  Water  should  be  at. 

80°  F.   (267°  C.)  70°  F.  (21-1*0.) 

72°  (22-2°  C.)  64°  (17 '8°  C.) 

67°  (19  4°  C.)  60°  (15  6°  C.) 

60°  (15-6°  C.)  54°  (12-2°  C.) 

55°  (12-8°  (J.)  50°  (10°  C.) 

50°  (10°  C.)  46°  (7-8°  C.) 

42°  (5'6°  C.)  40°  (4-4°  C.) 

*  See  paper  by  Brame  and  Cowan,  J.S.C.I.,  1903,  p.  1230. 

t  The  details  given  are  condensed  from  the  valuable  paper  by  J.  W.  Thomas  in 
the  Chemical  News,  25th  March  1881,  p.  135,  with  additions  by  the  author. 


152   DETERMINATION  OP  THE  CALORIFIC  POWER  OF  FUEL. 

Instead  of  simply  filling  up  to  the  29,010  grain  mark,  it  is  more 
accurate  to  measure  out  2  litres,  less  116  c.c.,  since  29,010  grains  of 
water  occupy  1884  c.c.  A  tall  narrow  cylinder  with  a  single  mark 
serves  to  measure  the  116  c.c.  to  be  withdrawn  from  the  second 
litre  before  pouring  in.  Put  a  thermometer  into  the  water  and 
leave  it  there  while  weighing  out  the  coal.  30  grains  of  the  dried 
coal  are  intimately  mixed  with  330  grains  of  the  oxidizing  mixture  ; 
best  with  a  spatula  rather  than  in  a  mortar.  Introduce  the  mixture 
into  the  cylinder  (3£"x£"),  pressing  down  in  small  portions  at  a 
time  with  a  test-tube  ;  do  not  tap.  Put  in  the  fuse,  opening  out 
its  lower  end  in  the  mixture.  Then  read  the  thermometer,  light 
the  fuse  and  place  the  cylinder,  with  its  stand  and  cover,  quickly 
in  the  jar.  The  combustion  should  occupy  between  one  and  two 
minutes.  At  its  conclusion  the  stopcock  is  opened  and  the  whole 
moved  up  and  down  in  the  liquid  with  the  thermometer,  the  latter 
being  read  three  or  four  times,  and  its  maximum  reading  noted. 
An  example  will  show  the  mode  of  calculating  results. 

Temperature  of  room         ...        .        .      ,.        .        .        60°  F. 
„  water  after  combustion       .        V         .        671 

„      before  combustion  54-4 


Increase         127 
+  A*  1*27 


Evaporative  power  of  the  coal,  i.e.  number  of  Ib.  of 

water  at  212°  F.  evaporated  by  1  Ib.  of  the  dried  coal        13*97 

13-97x537  =  7502  calories,  i.e.  grams  of  water  heated  1°  C.  by  1 
gram  of  the  coal. 

13*97x967  =  13509  British  Thermal  Units,  or  number  of  Ib.  of 
water  heated  through  1°  Fah.  by  1  Ib.  of  the  coal. 

The  evaporative  power  of  the  coal  in  its  original  state  can  be 
calculated  as  follows  : — 

Suppose  the  above  coal  to  have  11 '5  per  cent,  of  moisture, 
then  1  Ib.  contains  '885  Ib.  of  dry  coal, 
and  -115  Ib.  of  moisture, 

•885x1 3-97  =  12-36. 

The  quantity  of  heat  required  to  raise  0'115  Ib.  of  water  from 
60°  to  212°  F.,  and  to  convert  the  boiling  water  into  steam,  is 

(152  +  967)  x  -115  pound -degree  Fah.  units, 
which  has  an  evaporative  power  of 
1119x-115 
~967 =  0'13lb- 

*  An  addition  of  10  per  cent,  is  made  to  allow  for  the  heat  absorbed  by  the  copper 
cylinder  and  stand  and  for  carbon  not  completely  burned.  It  has  been  found  to 
be  too  small  in  most  cases,  and  an  increase  to  15  per  cent,  has  been  suggested 
by  Scheurer-Kestner. 


ELECTRICAL   UNITS.  153 

Hence  the  evaporative  power  of  the  original  coal  is  12 '36-  P13  = 
12-23  lb. 

Since  — =  1-16,  the  amount  to  be  finally  deducted  is  obtained  by 
9o7 

simply  multiplying  this  number  by  the  amount  of  water  contained 
in  1  lb.  of  coal. 

When  the  ultimate  analysis  of  a  dry  coal  is  known,  the  calorific 
value  (in  calories)  can  be  approximately  calculated  by  the  following 
formula  : — 

Q=  1/8140  C +  34500  (H-  (0  +  N)— L  )  +  2220  S  } 
100  L  \  o          /  ) 

=  81-4  C  +  43-125  {8  H-  (0  +  N)  +  l|  +22-2  S. 
Thus,  the  analysis  of  a  dry  coal  gave 

C  90-09  ;  H  3-85  ;  (O  +  N)  3'61  ;  S  0*77. 
Hence  Q=81'4 x  90*09 +  43*125  J8  x  3*85  - 3*61  + 1 } 

+  22-2  x -77 
=  7333  +  1216  +  17 
=  8566 
Mahler's  calorimeter  gave  8629  calories. 

ELECTRICAL  UNITS. 

The  ohm  is  the  resistance  offered  to  an  unvarying  electric  current 
by  a  column  of  mercury  at  0°  C.,  14*4521  grams  in  mass,  of  a 
constant  cross-sectional  area,  and  of  a  length  of  106'3  cm. 

The  ampere  is  represented  by  the  unvarying  electric  current 
which,  when  passed  through  a  10  per  cent,  aqueous  solution  of 
silver  nitrate,  deposits  silver  at  the  rate  of  O'OOlllS  gram  per 
second. 

The  volt  is  the  electrical  pressure  that,  if  steadily  applied  to  a 
conductor  whose  resistance  is  one  ohm,  will  produce  a  current  of 

one  ampere,  and  which  is  represented   by  0*6974  (          j  of  the 

electrical  pressure  at  15°  C.  between  the  poles  of  a  standard  Clark's 
Cell. 

TABLE  OF  ELECTRO-CHEMICAL  EQUIVALENTS. 
(In  grams  per  coulomb.  *) 


Hydrogen  .  .  0*000010384 

Potassium  .  .  0*0004053 

Sodium    .  .  .  0*0002388 

Gold         .  .  .  0*0006791 

Silver       .  .  .  0*001118 

Copper  (ic)  .  .  0 '0003281 

,,      (ous)  .  .  0*0006562 

Mercury  (ic)  .  .  0 '0010374 

(ous).  .  0-0020748 

Tin  (ic)    .  .  .  0-0003058 


Iron  (ous).  .  .  0*0002902 

,,     (ic)  .  .  .  Q'0001935 

Nickel  .  .  .  0-0003043 

Zinc  .  .  .  0*000337 

Lead  .  .  .  0*0010716 

Oxygen  .  .  .  0 '00008286 

Chlorine  .  .  .  0'0003673 

Iodine  .  .  .  0 '001 3 14 

Bromine  .  0 '0008282 


,,    (ous)          .         .     0*0006116        Nitrogen    .         .         .     0 '0000485 
*  The  coulomb  is  the  quantity  of  electricity  conveyed  bya  current  of  one  ampere 
in  one  second  (also  (.ailed  an  ampere-second). 


154  ELECTRICAL   UNITS. 

The  values  given  on  p.  153  are  obtained  by  multiplying 
0*000010384  (the  electro-chemical  equivalent  of  hydrogen)  by 

the  fraction  atomi°  weight  of  each  element. 

valency 

The  prefix  meg-  means  a  million  times  the  unit  to  which  it  is 
prefixed. 

The  prefix  micro-  means  a  millionth  part  of  the  unit  to  which  it 
is  prefixed. 

Thus  a  megohm  is  a  million  ohms,  and  1  microvolt  is  a  millionth 
of  a  volt. 

The  watt  is  the  power  of  a  current  of  1  ampere  flowing  under  a 
pressure  of  1  volt.     It  equals  T^  of  one  horse-power. 
1  kilowatt =1000  watts  =  44,240  ft.-lb.  per  min. 

=  1'34  horse-power. 

1  electrical  horse-power =746  watts =33, 000  ft.-lb.  per  min. 
1  B.T.U.  =  3,600,000  watt-seconds,  or  3'6x  10°  watt-seconds. 
1  kilowatt-hour =1*34  horse-power  hours. 
1  French  or  metric  horse-power  =  75  kilogrammetres  per  sec. 

=  32,549  ft.-lb.  per  min. 
=  736  watts. 

=  0'9863  British  horse-power. 

1  British  horse-power  =  1*01 385  French  horse-power  (force  de 
cheval). 

Board  of  Trade  Unit  (B.T.U.).  For  commercial  purposes 
electrical  energy  is  measured  in  units  of  1000  watt-hours  each, 
known  as  Board  of  Trade  units. 

1  B.T.U.  =  100?=1J  horse  power-hours. 

746 


RULES  FOR  THE  CONVERSION  OF  THEKMOMETRIC  DEGREES  FROM 
ONE  SCALE  INTO  ANOTHER. 


To  Convert 

Rules. 

°Frinto°C. 
0  F.  into  °  R. 
0  C.  into  °  F. 
0  C.  into  °  R. 
0  R.  into  °  F. 
0  R.  into  °  C. 

First  subtract  32,  then  multiply  by  5  and  divide  by  9. 
First  subtract  32,  then  multiply  by  4  and  divide  by  9. 
Multiply  by  9  and  divide  by  5,  then  add  32. 
Multiply  by  4  and  divide  by  5. 
Multiply  by  9  and  divide  by  4,  then  add  32. 
Multiply  by  5  and  divide  by  4. 

Note. — Perhaps  the  simplest  rule  for  the  conversion  of  °C.  into  °F. 
is  the  following  : — 

Double  the  number  of  degrees,  subtract  one-tenth,  then  add  32. 

Thus 

90°  C.     90x2  =  180-18  =  162  +  32  =  194°  F. 


THERMOMETRIC    TABLES. 


155 


CONVERSION  OF  THE  DIFFERENT  THERMOMETRIC  SCALES. 
TABLE  I. 


FAHR. 

Re  a  urn. 

Cent. 

FAHR. 

Re;mm. 

Cent. 

FAHR. 

Reaum. 

Cent. 

500 

208 

260 

452 

186-7 

233-3 

404 

165-3 

2067 

499 

207-6 

259-4 

451 

186-2 

232-8 

403 

164-9 

206-1 

498 

207-1 

258-9 

450 

185-8 

232-2 

402 

164-4 

205-6 

497 

2067 

258-3 

449 

185-3 

231-7 

401 

164 

205 

496 

206-2 

257-8 

448 

184-9 

231-1 

400 

163-6 

204-4 

495 

205  '8 

257  -2 

447 

184-4 

230-6 

399 

163-1 

203-9 

494 

205-3 

256-7 

446 

184 

230 

398 

162-7 

203-3 

493 

204-9 

256-1 

445 

183-6 

229-4 

397 

162-2 

202-8 

492 

204-4 

255-6 

444 

183-1 

228-9 

396 

161-8 

202-2 

491 

204 

255 

443 

182-7 

228-3 

395 

161-3 

201-7 

490 

203-6 

254-4 

442 

182-2 

227-8 

394 

160-9 

201-1 

489 

203-1 

253-9 

441 

181-8 

227-2 

393 

160-4 

200-6 

488 

2027 

253-3 

440 

181-3 

226-7 

392 

160 

200 

487 

202-2 

252-8 

439 

180-9 

2261 

391 

159-6 

199-4 

486 

201-8 

252-2 

438 

180-4 

225-6 

390 

159-1 

198-9 

485 

201-3 

251-7 

437 

180 

225 

389 

158-7 

198-3 

484 

200-9 

251-1 

436 

179-6 

224-4 

388 

158-2 

197-8 

483 

200-4 

250-6 

435 

179-1 

223-9 

387 

157-8 

197*2 

482 

200 

250 

434 

1787 

223-3 

386 

157-3 

1967 

481 

199-6 

249-4 

433 

178-2 

222-8 

385 

156-9 

196-1 

480 

199-1 

248-9 

432 

177-8 

222-2 

384 

156-4 

195-6 

479 

1987 

248-3 

431 

177-3 

221-7 

383 

156 

195 

478 

198-2 

247-8 

430 

176-9 

221-1 

382 

155-6 

194-4 

477 

197-8 

247-2 

429 

176-4 

220-6 

381 

155-1 

193-9 

476 

197-3 

246-7 

428 

176 

220 

380 

1547 

193-3 

475 

196-9 

246-1 

427 

175-6 

219-4 

379 

154-2 

192-8 

474 

196-4 

245-6 

426 

175-1 

218-9 

378 

153-8 

192-2 

473 

196 

245 

425 

174-7 

218-3 

377 

153-3 

1917 

472 

195-6 

244-4 

424 

174-2 

217-8 

376 

152-9 

191-1 

471 

195-1 

243-9 

423 

173-8 

217-2 

375 

152-4 

190-6 

470 

194-7 

243-3 

422 

173-3 

216-7 

374 

152 

190 

469 

194-2 

242-8 

421 

172-9 

216-1 

373 

151-6 

189-4 

468 

193-8 

242-2 

420 

172-4 

215-6 

372 

151-1 

188-9 

467 

193-3 

2417 

419 

172 

215 

371 

150-7 

188-3 

466 

192-9 

241-1 

418 

171-6 

214-4 

370 

150-2 

187-8 

465 

192-4 

240-6 

417 

171-1 

213-9 

369 

149-8 

187-2 

464 

192 

240 

416 

170-7 

213-3 

368 

149-3 

1867 

463 

191-6 

239-4 

415 

170-2 

212-8 

367 

148-9 

186-1 

462 

191-1 

238-9 

414 

169-8 

212-2 

366 

148-4 

185-6 

461 

1907 

238-3 

413 

169-3 

211-7 

365 

148 

185 

460 

190-2 

237-8 

412 

168-9 

211-1 

364 

147-6 

184-4 

459 

189-8 

237-2 

411 

168-4 

210-6 

363 

147-1 

183-9 

458 

189-3 

236-7 

410 

168 

210 

362 

1467 

183-3 

457 

188-9 

236-1 

409 

167-6 

209-4 

.    361 

146-2 

182-8 

456 

188-4 

235-6 

408 

167-1 

208-9 

360 

145-8 

182-2 

455 

188 

235 

407 

1667 

208-3 

359 

145-3 

1817 

454 

187-6 

234-4 

406 

166-2 

207-8 

358 

144-9 

181-1 

453 

187-1 

233-9 

405 

165-8 

207-2 

357 

144-4 

180-6 

i 

156 


THEKMOMETRIC    TABLES. 


CONVERSION  OF  THE  DIFFERENT  THERMOMETRIO  SCALES. 
TABLE  I. — continued. 


FAHR. 

Reaum. 

Cent. 

FAHR. 

Reaum. 

Cent. 

FAHK. 

Reaum. 

Cent. 

356 

144 

180 

308 

122-7 

153-3 

260 

101-3 

126-7 

355 

143'6 

179  4 

307 

122-2 

152-8 

259 

100-9 

126-1 

354 

143-1 

178-9 

306 

121-8 

152-2 

258 

100-4 

125-6 

353 

1427 

178-3 

305 

121-3 

151-7 

257 

100 

125 

352 

142-2 

177-8 

304 

120-9 

151-1 

256 

99-6 

124-4 

351 

141-8 

177-2 

303 

120-4 

150-6 

255 

99-1 

123-9 

350 

141-3 

176-7 

302 

120 

150 

254 

98-7 

123-3 

349 

140-9 

176-1 

301 

119-6 

149-4 

253 

98-2 

122-8 

348 

140-4 

175-6 

300 

119-1 

148-9 

252 

97-8 

122-2 

347 

140 

175 

299 

1187 

148-3 

251 

97-3 

1217 

346 

139-6 

174-4 

298 

118-2 

147-8 

250 

96-9 

1211 

345 

139-1 

173-9 

297 

117-8 

147-2 

249 

96-4 

120-6 

344 

1387 

173-3 

296 

117-3 

1467 

248 

96 

120 

343 

138-2 

172-8 

295 

116-9 

1461 

247 

95-6 

119-4 

342 

137-8 

172-2 

294 

116-4 

145-6 

246 

95-1 

118-9 

341 

137-3 

1717 

293 

116 

145 

245 

947 

118-3 

340 

136-9 

1711 

292 

115-6 

144-4 

244 

94-2 

117*8 

339 

136-4 

170-6 

291 

115-1 

143-9 

243 

93-8 

117-2 

338 

136 

170 

290 

114-7 

143-3 

242 

93-3 

1167 

337 

135-6 

169-4 

289 

114-2 

142-8 

241 

92-9 

116-1 

336 

135-1 

168-9 

288 

113-8 

142-2 

240 

92-4 

115-6 

335 

1347 

168-3 

287 

113-3 

141-7 

239 

92 

115 

334 

134-2 

167-8 

286 

112-9 

141-1 

238 

91-6 

114-4 

333 

133-8 

167-2 

285 

112-4 

140-6 

237 

91-1 

113-9 

332 

133-3 

166-7 

284 

112 

140 

236 

90-7 

113-3  ! 

331 

132-9 

166-1 

283 

11T6 

139-4 

235 

90-2 

112-8 

330 

132-4 

165-6 

282 

111-1 

138-9 

234 

89-8 

112-2 

329 

132 

165 

281 

110-7 

138-3 

233 

89-3 

1117 

328 

131-6 

164-4 

280 

110-2 

137-8 

232 

88-9 

1111 

327 

131-1 

163-9 

279 

109-8 

137-2 

231 

88-4 

110-6 

326 

130-7 

163-3 

278 

109-3 

136-7 

230 

88 

110 

325 

130-2 

162-8 

277 

108-9 

136-1 

229 

87-6 

109-4 

324 

129-8 

162-2 

276 

108-4 

135-6 

228 

87-1 

108-9 

323 

129-3 

161-7 

275 

108 

135 

227 

867 

108-3 

322 

128-9 

161-1 

274 

107-6 

134-4 

226 

86-2 

107-8 

321 

128-4 

160-6 

273 

107-1 

133-9 

225 

85-8 

107-2 

320 

128 

160 

272 

1067 

133-3 

224 

85-3 

1067 

319 

127-6 

159-4 

271 

106-2 

132-8 

223 

84-9 

106-1 

318 

127-1 

158-9 

270 

105-8 

132-2 

222 

84-4 

105-6 

317 

1267 

158-3 

269 

105-3 

1317 

221 

84 

105 

316 

126-2 

157-8 

268 

104-9 

131-1 

220 

83-6 

104-4 

315 

125-8 

157-2 

267 

104-4 

130-6 

219 

83-1 

103-9 

314 

125-3 

1567 

266 

104 

130 

218 

82-7 

103-3 

313 

124-9 

1561 

265 

103-6 

129-4 

217 

82-2 

102-8 

312 

124-4 

155-6 

264 

103-1 

128-9 

216 

81-8 

102-2 

311 

124 

155 

263 

102-7 

128-3 

215 

81-3 

1017 

310 

123-6 

154-4 

262 

102-2 

127-8 

214 

80-9 

1011 

309 

123-1 

153-9 

261 

101-8 

127-2 

213 

80-4 

100-6 

THERMOMETRIC    TABLES. 


157 


CONVERSION  OF  THE  DIFFERENT  THERMOMETRIO  SCALES. 
TABLE  I. — continued. 


FAHK. 

Reaum. 

Cent. 

FAHR. 

Reaum. 

Cenf 

FAHR. 

Reaum. 

Cent. 

212 

80-0 

100-0 

164 

587 

73-3 

116 

37-3 

467 

211 

79-6 

99-4 

163 

58-2 

72-8 

115 

36-9 

46-1 

210 

791 

98-9 

162 

57-8 

72-2 

114 

36-4 

45-6 

209 

787 

98-3 

161 

57-3 

717 

113 

36-0 

45-0 

208 

78-2 

97-8 

160 

56-9 

711 

112 

35-6 

44-4 

207 

77-8 

97-2 

159 

56-4 

70-6 

111 

351 

43-9 

206 

77-3 

967 

158 

56-0 

70-0 

110 

347 

43-3 

205 

76-9 

961 

157 

55-6 

69'4 

109 

34-2 

42-8 

204 

76-4 

95-6 

156 

55-1 

68-9 

108 

33-8 

42-2 

203 

76-0 

95-0 

155 

547 

68-3 

107 

33-3 

417 

202 

75-6 

94-4 

154 

54-2 

67-8 

106 

32-9 

411 

201 

751 

93-9 

153 

53-8 

67'2 

105 

32-4 

40-6 

200 

747 

93-3 

152 

53-3 

667 

104 

32-0 

40-0 

199 

74-2 

92-8 

151 

52-9 

661 

103 

31-6 

39'4 

198 

73-8 

92-2 

150 

52-4 

65-6 

102 

311 

38-9 

197 

73-3 

917 

149 

52-0 

65-0 

101 

307 

38-3 

196 

72-9 

91-1 

148 

51-6 

64-4 

100 

30-2 

37-8 

195 

72-4 

90'6 

147 

51-1 

63-9 

99 

29'8 

37-2 

194 

72-0 

90-0 

146 

507 

63-3 

98 

29-3 

367 

193 

71-6 

89-4 

145 

50-2 

62-8 

97 

28-9 

361 

192 

71'1 

88-9 

144 

49-8 

62-2 

96 

28'4 

35'6 

191 

707 

88-3 

143 

49'3 

617 

95 

28'0 

35-0 

190 

70-2 

87-8 

142 

48'9 

611 

94 

27-6 

34-4 

189 

69-8 

87-2 

141 

48-4 

60-6 

93 

271 

33-9 

188 

69-3 

867 

140 

48-0 

60-0 

92 

267 

33-3 

187 

68-9 

86-1 

139 

47'6 

59-4 

91 

26-2 

32-8 

186 

68-4 

85-6 

138 

471 

58-9 

90 

25-8 

32-2 

185 

68-0 

85-0 

137 

467 

58-3 

89 

25-3 

317 

184 

67'6 

84-4 

136 

46-2 

57-8 

88 

24-9 

311 

183 

67-1 

83-9 

135 

45'8 

57'2 

87 

24'4 

30-6 

182 

667 

83-3 

134 

45-3 

567 

86 

24-0 

30-0 

181 

66-2 

82-8 

133 

44-9 

561 

85 

2£  6 

29-4 

180 

65-8 

82-2 

132 

44-4 

55-6 

84 

231 

28'9 

179 

65-3 

817 

131 

44-0 

55-0 

83 

227 

28-3 

178 

64-9 

81-1 

130 

43'6 

54-4 

82 

22-2 

27'8 

177 

64-4 

80-6 

129 

431 

53-9 

81 

21-8 

27'2 

176 

64-0 

80-0 

128 

427 

53-3 

80 

21-3 

267 

175 

63-6 

79-4 

127 

42-2 

52-8 

79 

20-9 

261 

174 

631 

78'9 

126 

41-8 

52-2 

78 

20-4 

25-6 

173 

627 

78-3 

125 

41-3 

517 

77 

20'0 

25-0 

172 

62-2 

77-8 

124 

40-9 

511 

76 

19-6 

24-4 

171 

61-8 

77-2 

123 

40-4 

50-6 

75 

191 

23-9 

170 

61-3 

767 

122 

40-0 

50-0 

74 

187 

23-3 

169 

60-9 

76-1 

121 

39-6 

49-4 

73 

18-2 

22-8 

168 

60-4 

75-6 

120 

391 

48-9 

72 

17-8 

22-2 

167 

60-0 

75-0 

119 

387 

48'3 

71 

17-3 

217 

166 

59-6 

74-4 

118 

38-2 

47'8 

70 

16-9 

211 

165 

59-1 

73-9 

117 

37'8 

47-2 

69 

16-4 

20-6 

158 


THERMOMETRIC    TABLES. 


CONVERSION  OF  THE  DIFFERENT  THERMOMETRIO  SCALES. 
TABLE  I.— continued. 


FAHR. 

Reuum. 

Cent. 

FAHR. 

Reaum. 

Cent. 

FAHR. 

Reaura. 

Cent. 

68 

16-0 

20-0 

34 

0-9 

I'l 

0 

-14-2 

-17-8 

67 

15-6 

19-4 

33 

0-4 

0-6 

-  1 

-147 

-18-3 

66 

15-1 

18-9 

32 

o-o 

o-o 

-   2 

-151 

-18-9 

65 

147 

18-3 

31 

-   0-4 

-   0-6 

-   3 

-15-6 

-19-4 

64 

14-2 

17-8 

30 

-    0-9 

-     1-1 

-    4 

-16-0 

-20-0 

63 

13-8 

17-2 

29 

-    1-3 

-   17 

-    5 

-16-4 

-20-6 

62 

13-3 

167 

28 

-    1-8 

-   2-2 

-    6 

-16-9 

-21-1 

61 

12-9 

16-1 

27 

-    2-2 

-   2-8 

-  7 

-17-3 

-217 

60 

12-4 

15-6 

26 

-   27 

-   3-3 

-   8 

-17-8 

-22-2 

59 

12-0 

15-0 

25 

-   3-1 

-   3-9 

-   9 

-18-2 

-22-8 

58 

11-6 

14-4 

24 

-  3-6 

-   4-4 

-10 

-187 

-23-3 

57 

11-1 

13-9 

23 

-   4-0 

-   5-0 

-11 

-19-1 

-23-9 

56 

107 

13-3 

22 

-    4-4 

-   5-6 

-12 

-19-6 

-24-4 

55 

10-2 

12-8 

21 

-    4-9 

-   6-1 

-13 

-20-0 

-25-0 

54 

9-8 

12-2 

20 

-   5'3 

-   67 

-14 

-20-4 

-25-6 

53 

9-3 

117 

19 

-   5-8 

-   7'2 

-15 

-20-9 

-26-1 

52 

8-9 

11-1 

18 

-   6-2 

-  7'8 

-16 

-21-3 

-267 

51 

8-4 

10-6 

17 

-   67 

-   8-3 

-17 

-21-8 

-27-2 

50 

8-0 

10-0 

16 

-   7-1 

-   8'9 

-18 

-22-2 

-27-8 

49 

7-6 

9-4 

15 

-   7'6 

-   9-5 

-19 

-227 

-28-3 

48 

7-1 

8'9 

14 

-  8-0 

-10-0 

-20 

-23-1 

-28-9 

47 

67 

8-3 

13 

-   8-4 

-10-6 

-21 

-23'6 

-29-4 

46 

6-2 

7'8 

12 

-    8'9 

-11-1 

-22 

-24-0 

-30-0 

45 

5-8 

7-2 

11 

-   9-3 

-117 

-23 

-24-4 

-30-6 

44 

5-3 

67 

10 

-   9-8 

-12-2 

-24 

-24-9 

-31-1 

43 

4-9 

6-1 

9 

-10-2 

-12-8 

-25 

-25-3 

-317 

42 

4-4 

5'6 

8 

-107 

-13-3 

-26 

-25-8 

-32-2 

41 

4-0 

5-0 

7 

-11-1 

-13-9 

-27 

-26-2 

-32-8 

40 

3-6 

4-4 

6 

-11-6 

-14-4 

-28 

-267 

-33-3 

39 

3-1 

3-9 

5 

-12-0 

-15-0 

-29 

-27-1 

-33-9 

38 

27 

3-3 

4 

-12-4 

-15-6 

-30 

-27-6 

-34-4 

37 

2-2 

2-8 

3 

-12'9 

-16-1 

-31 

-28-0 

-35-0 

36 

1-8 

2-2 

2 

-13-3 

-167 

35 

T3 

17 

1 

-13-8 

-17-2 

CONVERSION  OF  THE  DIFFERENT  THERMOMETRIC  SCALES. 
TABLE  II. 


CENT. 

Reaum. 

Fahr. 

CENT. 

Reaum. 

Fahr. 

CENT. 

Reaum. 

Fahr. 

260 

208 

500 

252 

201-6 

485-8 

244 

195-2 

471-2 

259 

207-2 

498-2 

251 

200-8 

483-8 

243 

194-4 

469-4 

258 

206-4 

496-4 

250 

200 

482 

242 

193-6 

467-6 

257 

205-6 

494-6 

249 

199-2 

480-2 

241 

192-8 

465-8 

256 

204-8 

492-8 

248 

198-4 

478-4 

240 

192 

464 

255 

204 

491 

247 

197-6 

476-6 

239 

191-2 

462-2 

254 

203-2 

489-2 

246 

196-8 

474-8 

238 

190-4 

460-4 

263 

202-4 

487-4 

245 

196 

473 

237 

189-6 

458-6 

THERMOMETRIC    TABLES. 


159 


CONVERSION  OF  THE  DIFFERENT  THERMOMETRIO  SCALES. 
TABLE  II.—  continued. 


CENT. 

Reaum. 

Falir. 

CENT. 

Reaum. 

Fahr. 

CENT. 

Reaum. 

Fahr. 

236 

188-8 

456-8 

188 

150-4 

370-4 

140 

112 

284 

235 

188 

455 

187 

149-6 

368-6 

139 

111-2 

282-2 

234 

187'2 

453  -2 

186 

148-8 

366-8 

13S 

110-4 

280-4 

233 

186-4 

451-4 

185 

148 

365 

137 

109-6 

278-6 

232 

185  6 

449-6 

184 

147-2 

363-2 

136 

108-8 

276-8 

231 

184-8 

447*8 

183 

146-4 

361-4 

135 

108 

275 

230 

184 

446 

182 

145-6 

359-6 

134 

107-2 

273-2 

229 

183-2 

444-2 

181 

144-8 

357-8 

133 

106-4 

271-4 

228 

182-4 

442-4 

180 

144 

356 

132 

105-6 

269-6 

227 

181-6 

440-6 

179 

143-2 

354-2 

131 

104-8 

267-8 

226 

180-8 

438-8 

178 

142-4 

352-4 

130 

104 

266 

225 

180 

437 

177 

141-6 

350-6 

129 

103-2 

264-2 

224 

179-2 

435-2 

176 

140-8 

348-8 

128 

102-4 

262-4 

223 

178-4 

433-4 

175 

140 

347 

127 

101-6 

260  -6 

222 

177-6 

431-6 

174 

139-2 

345-2 

126 

100-8 

258-8 

221 

176-8 

429-8 

173 

138-4 

343-4 

125 

100 

257 

220 

176 

428 

172 

137-6 

341-6 

124 

99-2 

255-2 

219 

175-2 

426-2 

171 

136-8 

339-8 

123 

98-4 

253-4 

218 

174-4 

424-4 

170 

136 

338 

122 

97-6 

251-6 

217 

173-6 

422*6 

169 

135-2 

336-2 

121 

96-8 

249-8 

216 

172-8 

420-8 

168 

134-4 

334-4 

1-20 

96 

248 

215 

172 

419 

167 

133-6 

332-6 

119 

95-2 

246-2 

214 

171-2 

417-2 

166 

132-8 

330-8 

118 

94-4 

244-4 

213 

170-4 

415-4 

165 

132 

329 

117 

93-6 

242-6 

212 

169-6 

413-6 

164 

131-2 

327-2 

116 

92-8 

240-8 

211 

168-8 

411-8 

163 

130-4 

325-4 

115 

92 

239 

210 

168 

410 

162 

129-6 

323-6 

114 

91-2 

237-2 

209 

167-2 

408-2 

161 

128-8 

321-8 

113 

90-4 

235-4 

208 

166-4 

406-4 

160 

128 

320 

112 

89-6 

233-6 

207 

165-6 

404-6 

159 

127-2 

318-2 

111 

88-8 

231-8 

206 

164-8 

402-8 

158 

126-4 

316-4 

110 

88 

230 

205 

164 

401 

157 

125-6 

314-6 

109 

87-2 

228-2 

204 

163-2 

399-2 

156 

124-8 

312-8 

108 

86-4 

226-4 

203 

162-4 

397-4 

155 

124 

311 

107 

85-6 

224  -6 

202 

161-6 

395-6 

154 

123-2 

309-2 

106 

84-8 

222-8 

201 

160-8 

393-8 

153 

122-4 

307-4 

105 

84 

221 

200 

160 

392  . 

152 

121-6 

305-6 

104 

83-2 

219-2 

199 

159-2 

390-2 

151 

120-8 

303-8 

103 

82-4 

217-4 

198 

158-4 

388-4 

150 

120 

302 

102 

81-6 

215-6 

197 

157-6 

386-6 

149 

119-2 

30Mf> 

101 

80-8 

213-8 

196 

156-8 

384-8 

148 

118-4 

|j§K 

100 

80 

212 

195 

156 

383 

147 

117-6 

2^r6 

99 

79-2 

210-2 

194 

155-2 

381-2 

146 

116-8 

294-8 

98 

78-4 

208-4 

193 

154-4 

379-4 

145 

116 

293 

97 

77-6 

206-6 

192 

153-6 

377-6 

144 

115-2 

291-2 

96 

76-8 

204-8 

191 

152-8 

375-8 

143 

114-4 

289-4 

95 

76 

203 

190 

152 

374 

142 

113-6 

287-6 

94 

75-2 

201-2 

189 

151-2 

372-2 

141 

112-8 

285-8 

93 

74-4 

199-4 

160 


THERMOMETRIC   TABLES. 


CONVERSION  OF  THE  DIFFERENT  THERMOMETRIO  SCALES. 
TABLE  II. — continued. 


CKNT. 

Reaum. 

Fahr. 

CENT. 

Reaum. 

Fahr. 

CENT.      Reaum. 

Fahr. 

92 

73-6 

197-6 

49 

39-2 

120-2 

6 

4-8 

42-8 

91 

72-8 

195-8 

48 

38-4 

118-4 

5 

4 

41 

90 

72 

194 

47 

37-6 

116-6 

4 

3-2 

39-2 

89 

71-2 

192-2 

46 

36-8 

114-8 

3 

2-4 

37-4 

88 

70-4 

190-4 

45 

36 

113 

2 

1-6 

35-6 

87 

69-6 

188-6 

44 

35-2 

111-2 

1 

0-8 

33-8 

86 

68-8 

186-8 

43 

34-4 

109-4 

0 

0 

32 

85 

68 

185 

42 

33-6 

107-6 

-1 

-0-8 

30-2 

84 

67'2 

183-2 

41 

32-8 

105-8 

_  9 

-1-6 

28-4 

83 

66-4 

181-4 

40 

32 

104 

-3 

-2-4 

26-6 

82 

65-6 

179-6 

39 

31-2 

102-2 

-4 

-3-2 

24-8 

81 

64  -8 

177-8 

38 

30-4 

100-4 

-5 

-4 

23 

80 

64 

176 

37 

29-6 

98-6 

-6 

-4-8 

21-2 

79 

63-2 

174-2 

36 

28-8 

96-8 

-7 

-5-6 

19-4 

78 

62-4 

172-4 

35 

28 

95 

-8 

-6-4 

17-6 

77 

61-6 

170-6 

34 

27-2 

93-2 

-9 

-7-2 

15-8 

76 

60-8 

163-8 

33 

26-4 

91-4 

-10 

-8 

14 

75 

60 

167 

32 

25-6 

89-6 

-11 

-8-8 

12-2 

74 

59-2 

165-2 

31 

24-8 

87-8 

-12 

-9-6 

10-4 

73 

58-4 

163-4 

30 

24 

86 

-13 

-10-4 

8-6 

72 

57'6 

1131-6 

29 

23-2 

84-2 

-14 

-11-2 

6-8 

71 

56'8 

159-8 

28 

22-4 

82-4 

-15 

-12 

5 

70 

56 

158 

27 

21-6 

80-6 

-16 

-12-8 

3-2 

69 

55-2 

156-2 

26 

20-8 

78-8 

-17 

-13-6 

1-4 

68 

54-4 

154-4 

25 

20 

77 

-18 

-14-4 

-0-4 

67 

53-6 

152-6 

24 

19-2 

75-2 

-19 

-15-2 

-2-2 

66 

52-8 

150-8 

23 

18-4 

73-4 

-20 

-16 

-4 

65 

52 

149 

22 

17-6 

71-6 

-21 

-16-3 

-5-8 

64 

51-2 

147-2 

21 

16-8 

69-8 

-22 

-17-6 

-7-6 

63 

50-4 

145  4 

20 

16 

68 

-23 

-18-4 

-9-4 

62 

49'6 

143-6 

19 

15-2 

66-2 

-24 

-19-2 

-11-2 

61 

48-8 

141-8 

18 

14-4 

64-4 

-25 

-20 

-13 

60 

48 

140 

17 

13-6 

62-6 

-26 

-20-8 

-14-8 

59 

47-2 

138-2 

16 

12-8 

60-8 

-27 

-21-6 

-16-6 

58 

46-4 

136-4 

15 

12 

59 

-28 

-22-4 

-18-4 

57 

45-6 

134-6 

14 

11-2 

57-2 

-29 

-23-2 

-20-2 

56 

44-8 

132-8 

13 

10-4 

55-4 

-30 

-24 

-22 

55 

44 

131 

12 

9-6 

53-6 

••31 

-24-8 

-23-8 

54 

43-2 

129-2 

11 

8-8 

51-8 

-32 

-25-6 

-25-6 

53 

42-4 

127-4 

10 

8 

50 

-33 

-26-4 

-27-4 

52 

41-6 

125-6 

9 

7'2 

48-2 

-34 

-27-2 

-29-2 

51 

40-8 

123-8 

8 

6-4 

46-4 

-35 

-28 

-31 

50 

40 

122 

7 

5-6 

44-6 

INDEX. 


PAGE 

Alcohol  Calculations,        ....  .119 
Alcohol,  Correction  for  Temperature,    . 

Alcohol  Tables,      ....  .112 

Alkaline  Permanganate  Solution,          ...  79 

Ammonia,  sp.  gr.  of,                                                      .  75 

Ammonium  Molybdate  Solution,           ....  54 

Approximations,    ....  36 
Aqueous  Vapour,  Tension  of, 

Areas  and  Volumes  of  Bodies,     .... 

Arsenic  in  Food,   ...  149 

Atomic  Weights,  ....  1 

Barn  Gallon,          ....  59 

Barometric  Tables,            .                       .  66 

Baume's  Hydrometer,      ....  72 

Beer  Analysis  Tables,       ...  98 

Beer,  Original  Gravity  of,          .           .           .           .           .  .100 

Bi-rotation, .102 

Blunt's  Modification  of  Tabarie's  Formula,      .  .101 

Butter  Analysis  Tables,    ...  139 

Butter  Regulations,          ...                       .  141 

Calorie,  the,           ....  150 

Calorific  Power  of  Fuel,  ...  151 

Chicory  in  Coffee,             ....  147 

Computation,         ....  35 
Cupric  Reducing  Power,  ..."                                        .   .        109 

Data,  Various  Useful,       ...  31 

Densities  of  Common  Substances,          .  63 

Drams  per  Ib.  into  Percentage,  .....  65 

Electrical  Units,    .....  153 
L 


162  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Electro-chemical  Equivalents,    ...  153 

Factors,  Various  Useful,  .....  31 

Fehling's  Solution,  ...  .  .109 

Food  Units,  ....  ...        131 

Foreign  Moneys  and  their  Equivalents,  .  .  .  .          62 

Foreign  Weights  and  their  Equivalents,  .  .  .  .62 

Freezing  Mixtures,  ...  ...          64 

Gallisin,     .......  110 

Gases,  Coefficients  of  Absorption  of,  in  Water,  ...          29 

Gases,  Correction  of  Volumes  for  Temperature,  ...          67 

Gases,  Densities  of,          .......  7 

Glycerine,  sp.  gr.  of,  .  .  .  .  .  78 

Gravimetric  Factors,         ......  8 

Hardness  of  Water,  Keagents  for,         .  .  .  .80 

Hardness  of  Water,  Table  of, 86 

Heat,  Data  in,       ........        150 

Herzfeld's  Method  of  Inversion,  .  .  .  .  .106 

Hydrochloric  Acid,  sp.  gr.  of,    .  .  .  .  .  .          73 

Indicators,  Notes  on,  .  .  .  ...  .52 

Indirect  Analysis,  Examples  of,  .....         40 

Joule,  the,  150  (note) 

" K,"  Values  of, Ill 

Kjeldahl  Table,     . 130 

Latent  Heat  of  Water  and  Steam,         .  .  .  .  .        1 50 

Lead  in  Citric  and  Tartaric  Acids,        .          .  .  .  .147 

Logarithmic  Factors,  Use  of,  .  .  .  .  .39 

Logarithmic  Tables,         .......  2 

Logarithms,  Notes  on,     .  .  .  .  .  .  .32 

Magnesia  Mixture,  .....  .54 

Melting  Points  of  Metals,  ......  7 

Mercury  Vapour,  Tension  of,      .  .  .  .  .  .70 

Micron,       .  ......          57 

Mil  .  ...          57  (note) 

Milk  Analyses,  Calculation  of  Results  of,  .  .  .142 

Milk  Regulations,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .143 

Milk,  sp.  gr.  of,    .  ...        145 

Milk,  Table  giving  Deficiency  of  Non-fatty  Solids  in,          .  .144 

Milk,  Table  giving  Fat  Deficiency  in,  ....        144 


INDEX.  163 

PAGE 

Molecular  flotation,          .  102 

Multirotation  or  Mutarotation,  .  .  .  .        102 

Nessler's  Solution,  .  .  ....          79 

Nitrates  by  Gram's  Method,  Example  of,         ...  94 

Nitrates  in  Water,  Determination  of,  .  .  88 

Nitric  Acid,  sp.  gr.  of,     .  .  .  .  .  .  .73 

Nitrogen  into  Ammonia  and  Albuminoids,      .  .  .  .128 

Nitrogen  into  Casein,  Gelatin,  etc,       ...  .        131 

Nitrogen,  reduction  of  c.c.  to  grams,    .....          83 

Nitrometer  Analysis,       ......  28 

Normal  Solution,  Definition  of,  ...  22 

Obscuration  of  Spirits,     .....  .        117 

Oils,  Fats,  and  Waxes,  Constants  of,  .  .  .  .134 

Oils,  Fats,  and  Waxes,  Definitions  of,  .  .        132 

Oxygen,  Dissolved,  amount  of  in  Distilled  Water,     ...          97 
Parts  per  100,000  into  grains  per  gallon,         ....          91 

Percentage  Compositions,  Table  of,        .  .  .  .  .42 

Percentage  into  c wts.,  qrs.,  and  Ib.  per  ton,  etc.,      ...          64 
Phosphate  Tables,  .  .  .  .  .  .121 

Polarimeter  Readings,  reduction  of  minutes  to  decimals  of  degree,         108 
Potash,  Caustic,  sp.  gr.  of,          ......          76 

Potassium  and  Sodium  Chlorides,  Indirect  Determination  of,         .          40 
Precipitating  Powers  of  Reagents,          .  .  .  54 

Prescriptions,  Signs  used  in  Medical,  .  .  .  .61 

Preservatives  in  Food,      ....  .  146,149 

Preservatives  in  Milk  and  Cream,          .....        146 

Proof  Spirit,  .  .....        116 

Proteins,  Factors  for,  ....        131 

Quinine,      ...  .....        146 

Quinine,  Tincture  of,       .  ....        146 

Quintal,      ...  .....          60 

Reciprocals,  Table  of,       .......          30 

Rectified  Spirit,     .  . 116 

Reich ert-Meiisl  Values  of  Oils  and  Fats,          ....       137 

Salt  in  Beer,  .  99 

Saponification  Equivalent,          .  .  .  .  .  .138 

Saponification  Values  of  Oils  and  Fats,  Table  for,      .  .  .        137 

Saturated  Solutions  of  Salts,  Strength  of,        ...  77 


164  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Sewage  Effluents,  Standards  for,  .  ...         96 

Soda,  Caustic,  sp.  gr.  of,             .            .           .           .  .           .76 

Specific  Rotatory  Power,             .  101 

Specific  Rotatory  Power,  Examples  of,             .           .  .           .106 

Spirits,  Rules  for  finding  Dilution  of ,  .           .           .  .           .117 

Standard  Solutions,  Correction  for  Temperature,        .  .                     29 

Starch  Indicator,               .                                  ...  80 

Sulphuric  Acid,  sp.  gr.  of,                                .  74 

Thermo- Chemistry,  Data  in,      ....  .150 

Thermometric  Degrees,  Rules  for  Conversion  of,        .  .           .        154 

Thermometric  Tables,      .           .           .                       .  .           .155 

Thompson's  Calorimeter,                        .                       .  .151 

Thresh's  Starch  Solution,            .                                 .  94 

Ton,  Metric,          .                                              .  62 

Turmeric  Paper,    .....  53 

TwaddelPs  Hydrometer,  .                                 .  31 

Useful  Factors  and  Data,            ....  .31 

Volumetric  Factors,          ...                       .  22 

"Water  Analysis,  Reagents  for,               .  79 

Water  Analysis  Results,  Calculation  of,  93 

Water  Analysis  Results,  Method  of  Recording,          .  95 

Water  Analysis,  Tables  for,        .                      .  81 

Water,  Volume  and  Density  at  Different  Temperatures,  .                     71 

Water,  Weight  of  1  cubic  inch,  foot,  and  yard  of,  56 

Weights  and  Measures,    ....  55 


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14  DAY  USE 

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